CUSTER COUNTY

SEE BELOW FOR DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COUNTY DURING NEW DEAL ERA

FSA PHOTOS OF CUSTER COUNTY

THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND ECOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE COUNTY

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION (Custer County)

Custer County’s cultural landscape reflects more than a century of ranching, irrigated and dryland agriculture, homestead‑era settlement, timber use, and federal land management layered onto much older Indigenous homelands, travel corridors, and stewardship practices. Across the Yellowstone River, Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the pine‑covered uplands of the Ashland Ranger District, settlement clusters around water, forage, and timber in patterns that echo far older Northern Cheyenne, Lakota/Dakota, and Crow seasonal rounds, hunting grounds, and plant‑gathering sites. Ranch headquarters, hayfields, and windmills line the river bottoms and upland benches, while grazing allotments, stock reservoirs, two‑track roads, and fencelines extend the working footprint deep into the prairie and forested uplands. Across the county, reservoirs, dugouts, shelterbelts, drift fences, and SCS‑era erosion‑control structures form a subtle but extensive infrastructure that supports a resilient ranching economy.

The scale of this working landscape is striking. Much of the county is mixed‑grass prairie, sagebrush steppe, and badlands terrain, stretching across rolling uplands where western wheatgrass, green needlegrass, blue grama, needle‑and‑thread, and big sagebrush dominate. Forested lands — concentrated in the Custer National Forest (Ashland Ranger District) — form ecologically rich islands of ponderosa pine, juniper, aspen pockets, and grassy parks. Riparian corridors along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers support cottonwoods, willows, and wet‑meadow vegetation, creating some of the county’s most productive grazing lands. These land‑use patterns are not simply economic; they are cultural, ecological, and historical expressions of how people have adapted to Custer County’s sharp gradients in elevation, precipitation, and water availability.

Ecologically, the county has undergone repeated transformations. Native grasslands and sagebrush communities were converted into hayfields and dryland grain fields during the homestead era; upland forests shifted under the combined pressures of logging, fire suppression, and grazing; and riparian zones narrowed or expanded depending on beaver activity, channel migration, and stock‑water development. The construction of hundreds of stock reservoirs, many built or surveyed during the New Deal era, reshaped the hydrology of the prairie, creating new water sources for livestock and wildlife while altering runoff patterns and sedimentation. These systems, many dating to the 1930s and expanded through federal programs, created a patchwork of water developments that still defines the county’s ranching geography.

The county’s upland systems experienced their own transformations. In the Ashland Ranger District, fire suppression allowed ponderosa pine and juniper to expand into former grasslands and open savannas, while grazing, logging, and road building altered plant communities and wildlife movement. Springs, seeps, and high‑elevation meadows — long used by Indigenous nations for hunting, plant gathering, and ceremony — became sites of stock ponds, timber harvest, and Forest Service management experiments. Logging camps, CCC projects, and early Forest Service roads left lasting marks on the upland landscape, shaping access, vegetation patterns, and watershed function.

New Deal conservation programs — CCC, SCS, USFS, WPA, and RA — entered this dynamic system in the 1930s, reshaping erosion patterns, grazing systems, and watershed management. CCC enrollees built roads, trails, firebreaks, erosion‑control structures, and timber‑stand improvements across the Tongue River breaks and forested uplands. SCS technicians introduced contour plowing, gully stabilization, stock‑water development, and grazing‑rotation plans in response to drought, soil loss, and the collapse of many homestead‑era farms. WPA crews improved roads, schools, and public buildings in Miles City and rural districts, providing essential employment during the hardest years of the Depression. These interventions left a lasting imprint on the county’s ecological and cultural landscape, embedding federal conservation philosophies into local practices and shaping land‑management debates for decades.

The result is a landscape where Indigenous stewardship, ranching traditions, homestead‑era settlement, federal intervention, and ecological change are inseparable. Cottonwood corridors, sagebrush benches, badland breaks, and forested uplands all bear the marks of shifting land use, water management, and cultural continuity. The Ashland Ranger District anchors the county’s ecological identity, offering habitat, cultural sites, and recreational opportunities. The Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys remain the county’s agricultural and cultural heart, shaped by water, soil, and long‑established ranching communities. Across this landscape, the living legacy of Indigenous nations — their land stewardship, cultural geography, and ecological knowledge — remains central to how Custer County is understood, inhabited, and managed today.

NEW DEAL TRANSFORMATIONS TO THE LANDSCAPE (Custer County)

Resettlement Administration (RA) & Submarginal Lands Program

Custer County was one of eastern Montana’s most significant landscapes for RA submarginal land purchases, especially in areas where homestead‑era dryland farming had failed. The RA acquired exhausted or abandoned farms across the Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Tongue River drainages, consolidating them into:

cooperative grazing units
watershed‑protection areas
erosion‑control demonstration sites
federal and county grazing districts

These acquisitions helped stabilize families displaced by drought, grasshopper infestations, and crop failure, while reducing pressure on fragile prairie soils. RA land purchases in the 1930s directly influenced later SCS and BLM grazing‑management planning, ensuring that key tracts were available for coordinated rangeland rehabilitation and long‑term conservation.

Farm Security Administration (FSA)

1. Rehabilitation & Farm Stabilization

The FSA provided:

low‑interest loans for livestock, feed, and equipment
cooperative machinery pools for small ranchers
farm‑management training for families transitioning from failed dryland farming
assistance for ranchers adopting improved grazing and water‑management practices

These programs helped stabilize the ranching economy during the Depression and supported the shift toward more sustainable land use across the prairie and uplands.

2. Photography & Documentation

FSA and RA photographers documented:

drought‑damaged fields and abandoned homesteads
ranch families adapting to New Deal programs
CCC and SCS conservation work in the Tongue River breaks
small‑town life in Miles City and rural communities
stock‑water developments and erosion‑control structures

These images form an important visual record of Custer County’s 1930s cultural landscape.

Soil Conservation Service (SCS)

The SCS reshaped Custer County’s land use through:

contour plowing on vulnerable dryland fields
strip cropping to reduce wind erosion
gully stabilization in Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek
shelterbelt planting across homestead districts
stock‑water development in upland grazing areas
rotational‑grazing plans for ranchers in the Tongue River breaks

Many of the county’s stock reservoirs, shelterbelts, and contour terraces date to this period.

Rural Electrification Administration (REA)

The REA transformed rural life in Custer County by bringing electricity to:

isolated ranches across the prairie
homestead districts south and east of Miles City
small communities such as Kinsey, Locate, and Volborg

Electricity enabled:

refrigeration and food preservation
radio communication
mechanized milking and farm operations
electric lighting in homes, barns, and schools

REA lines permanently altered the visual and functional landscape of the county.

Works Progress Administration (WPA) & Public Works Administration (PWA)

WPA and PWA projects in Custer County included:

school improvements in Miles City and rural districts
road upgrades connecting Miles City to Broadus, Forsyth, and rural ranching areas
culverts, bridges, and drainage structures on prairie roads
public buildings and civic improvements in Miles City
erosion‑control structures in upland drainages
community halls and recreational facilities

These projects provided employment during the Depression while building the civic infrastructure that still anchors the county.

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

CCC camps operated in the Ashland Ranger District, completing:

road construction and improvement
timber thinning and fuel‑reduction projects
fire‑lookout construction and trail building
erosion‑control structures in mountain and prairie drainages
spring development and stock‑water projects
range improvements and reseeding of overgrazed uplands

CCC crews also worked on early watershed‑protection projects that supported later Forest Service and SCS planning across southeastern Montana.

STOCK WATER DEVELOPMENT & WATERSHED TRANSFORMATION (New Deal Foundations)

While Custer County did not experience a major dam project, the New Deal era fundamentally reshaped its hydrology through thousands of small‑scale water developments.

New Deal Contributions

RA and SCS land purchases secured key tracts for watershed rehabilitation
CCC crews built stock reservoirs, dugouts, and erosion‑control structures
SCS mapped erosion patterns and sediment loads across prairie drainages
WPA crews improved roads and culverts essential for ranch access
USFS projects stabilized upland watersheds in the Ashland Ranger District

Ecological Impact

New Deal water‑development systems:

transformed livestock distribution across the prairie
stabilized grazing pressure on fragile uplands
created new wetlands and wildlife habitat
reduced erosion in key drainages
reshaped settlement and ranching patterns
provided the foundation for modern grazing‑district management

Today, these reservoirs, terraces, and watershed projects remain some of the most enduring New Deal legacies in Custer County — subtle but transformative features that continue to shape ranching, wildlife, and land stewardship.

DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE COUNTY ENTERING THE DEPRESSION

Demographic Conditions Entering the 1930s (Custer County)

Custer County entered the 1930s as one of southeastern Montana’s most important regional hubs — a county shaped not by industrial smelting or immigrant labor, but by railroads, ranching, dryland wheat, and the commercial gravity of Miles City. Unlike the urban‑industrial counties of western Montana, Custer County’s population was overwhelmingly rural, dispersed, and tied to the rhythms of livestock, weather, and long‑distance transportation networks.

The result was a county with two interconnected demographic worlds:

Miles City — a railroad, livestock, and commercial center
The Eastern Montana Plains — sparsely populated ranchlands and dryland farming districts

These contrasting geographies produced a population that was economically interdependent yet socially distinct, entering the Depression with vulnerabilities tied to drought, livestock markets, and the fragility of homestead‑era agriculture.

Population Size & Distribution

By 1930, Custer County’s population was concentrated primarily in Miles City, which served as:

a regional railroad hub
a livestock shipping center
a commercial and medical center for southeastern Montana
home of the famous Miles City Stockyards and Range Riders Rodeo

Outside Miles City, population was scattered across:

ranches along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
dryland wheat districts north and west of town
small communities such as Kinsey, Moon Creek, and Locate
isolated homestead remnants from the 1910s boom

Urban–Rural Split

Urban/Commercial (Miles City): ~35–45%
Rural/Agricultural: ~55–65%

This made Custer County far more rural than Deer Lodge, Silver Bow, or Cascade counties, and more similar to the agricultural counties of eastern Montana.

Miles City: A Regional Hub of Railroads, Livestock & Trade

Miles City was not an industrial city — it was a transportation and livestock city, with a demographic profile shaped by:

railroad workers
stockyard labor
merchants and tradespeople
ranching families who used the town as their commercial center
federal and state employees (Forest Service, BLM predecessors, Extension Service)

Ethnic & Cultural Composition

Miles City had a more modest immigrant presence than western Montana, but still included:

German and German‑Russian families
Scandinavian settlers
Irish and English railroad workers
Eastern European homesteaders
A small but significant Jewish merchant community

Demographic Characteristics of Miles City

high proportion of working‑age adults in rail, trade, and livestock services
families tied to ranching operations but living in town for schooling
boarding houses for single railroad and stockyard workers
strong commercial middle class (merchants, hotel operators, professionals)
seasonal population spikes during livestock shipping and rodeo seasons

Miles City’s demographic stability depended heavily on railroads, livestock markets, and regional trade, making it vulnerable to drought‑driven herd reductions and national declines in cattle prices.

Rural Custer County: Ranching Families & Dryland Wheat Communities

Outside Miles City, Custer County was defined by large ranches, scattered homesteads, and small agricultural communities.

Key Rural Settlement Areas

Tongue River Valley — long‑established ranching families
Yellowstone River bottomlands — hay, cattle, irrigated patches
Kinsey Project area — early irrigation settlement
Northern dryland districts — wheat, barley, and abandoned homesteads
Moon Creek, Mizpah, Locate — small schools, post offices, and ranch clusters

Characteristics of Rural Demographics

multi‑generational ranch households
small, one‑room school districts scattered across the plains
seasonal labor patterns tied to branding, haying, lambing, and shipping
reliance on Miles City for medical care, supplies, and markets
strong community ties through churches, granges, and stockgrowers’ associations

Rural families were often self‑sufficient but deeply exposed to drought, grasshopper infestations, and volatile livestock markets.

Indigenous Presence & Historical Displacement

Custer County lies within the traditional homelands of:

Tsétsêhéstâhese (Northern Cheyenne)
Apsáalooke (Crow)
Lakota and Dakota Sioux
A’aninin and Assiniboine (regional presence)

By the 1930s:

most Indigenous families lived on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation (adjacent to the county) or the Crow Reservation
seasonal travel, trade, and labor continued across the Tongue River region
Indigenous cowboys and ranch hands worked on ranches throughout the county
Indigenous presence was undercounted in federal census data

The demographic absence in census tables reflects federal displacement and reservation boundaries, not the absence of Indigenous cultural ties to the land.

Age Structure & Household Composition

Miles City

dominated by working‑age adults in rail, trade, and livestock services
families with school‑aged children concentrated near schools and churches
boarding houses for single male workers
older adults often dependent on family or modest pensions

Rural Areas

family‑based ranch households with multiple generations
children formed a large share of the rural population
elderly residents often remained on ranches with extended family
seasonal laborers (often young men) moved between ranches, sheep camps, and railroad work

Gender Dynamics

Miles City

male‑dominated workforce in railroads, stockyards, and freight
women concentrated in teaching, domestic work, retail, and hospitality
ranch wives often lived in town during the school year with children

Rural Areas

ranching required labor from both men and women
women played central roles in ranch management, gardening, dairying, lambing, and community life
gender roles were flexible during peak labor seasons

Economic Vulnerability & Demographic Stressors

By the late 1920s, Custer County faced mounting pressures.

Urban Vulnerabilities (Miles City)

dependence on livestock markets and railroads
declining freight traffic as trucks expanded
reduced cattle prices during national downturns
limited industrial diversification

Rural Vulnerabilities

severe drought cycles beginning in the mid‑1920s
grasshopper infestations
collapse of homestead‑era dryland farming
abandonment of marginal farms
consolidation of ranches into larger operations
heavy debt loads from the 1910s boom

Both urban and rural populations entered the Depression with limited financial resilience, especially after the agricultural collapse of 1917–1925.

Migration Patterns Entering the 1930s

In‑Migration (Earlier Decades)

homesteaders from the Midwest and Great Plains (1909–1918)
railroad workers from the East and Midwest
European immigrants (German‑Russian, Scandinavian, Eastern European)
seasonal sheep and cattle labor

By the Late 1920s

out‑migration increased sharply as drought intensified
many homestead families left for Miles City, Billings, or out‑of‑state
ranch consolidation reduced labor needs
young adults sought work in larger cities or federal relief programs

These shifts foreshadowed the demographic upheaval of the 1930s.

A County Divided — Yet Interdependent

Custer County entered the Depression as a dual‑economy county:

Miles City: commercial, railroad‑driven, livestock‑centered
Rural Plains: ranching‑based, family‑centered, drought‑vulnerable

Each depended on the other:

ranchers relied on Miles City for shipping, supplies, and services
Miles City’s economy depended on ranching, livestock sales, and regional trade

This interdependence shaped the county’s demographic resilience — and its vulnerabilities — as the Depression unfolded.

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF COUNTY IN NEW DEAL ERA

Economic Conditions Entering the Depression (Custer County)
By the late 1920s, Custer County’s economy rested on a foundation that appeared stable from the outside — a mix of ranching, irrigated agriculture, dryland farming, timber use, and small‑scale coal production centered around Miles City and the Yellowstone–Tongue River corridor. But beneath this surface lay a set of deep structural vulnerabilities tied to drought cycles, market volatility, uneven access to water, and the long‑term consequences of homestead‑era land use. Unlike irrigated counties anchored by large dams or industrial counties supported by mining, Custer County’s economy depended on weather‑sensitive agriculture, variable river flows, and long‑distance transportation networks. As the national economy began to contract in 1929, Custer County entered the Depression already carrying the weight of these ecological and economic pressures.

The Ranching Core: A Narrow but Essential Economic Base
Ranching formed the heart of Custer County’s economy. Cattle and sheep operations relied on:
- hayfields along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- upland pastures in the Ashland Ranger District
- extensive open range across the prairie and badlands
- seasonal labor for lambing, shearing, haying, and fencing
This system was productive but precarious. Ranchers depended on:
- stable livestock prices
- adequate mountain snowpack feeding the Tongue River
- reliable access to grazing leases
- affordable feed and fencing materials
- functional roads to railheads in Miles City and Forsyth
By the late 1920s, these conditions were eroding. Wool and beef prices fluctuated sharply, transportation costs were high, and many ranchers carried significant debt for livestock, feed, and equipment. Drought reduced forage, forcing ranchers to buy hay at inflated prices or sell stock at a loss.

Dryland Farming: A Landscape of Risk and Collapse
Beyond the river valleys, dryland wheat and forage farming dominated the homestead districts established during the 1910s. These operations were inherently risky. Wheat yields fluctuated sharply with precipitation, and the 1920s brought cycles of drought that reduced harvests and increased reliance on borrowed capital.
By 1925, many dryland farmers were already struggling with:
- declining soil moisture
- wind erosion on exposed benches
- grasshopper infestations
- falling wheat prices
- rising equipment and fuel costs
- limited access to credit
By 1930, large portions of the county’s homestead‑era farms had been abandoned or consolidated into ranch holdings. The collapse of dryland farming left behind:
- empty schools
- shuttered post offices
- depopulated homestead districts
- families forced to relocate or seek relief
The ecological and economic failure of dryland agriculture was one of the county’s most significant pre‑Depression vulnerabilities.

Ranching vs. Dryland Farming: Divergent Vulnerabilities
While ranching was more stable than dryland farming, it faced its own structural challenges:
- decades of grazing pressure had degraded some prairie and foothill pastures
- dependence on hayfields made ranchers vulnerable to drought
- livestock markets fluctuated with national economic conditions
- long distances to railheads increased shipping costs
- harsh winters could devastate herds
The combination of environmental stress and market instability meant that even established ranches entered the Depression with limited financial resilience.

Timber, Coal & Clay: Small but Significant Sectors
Although not major industries on the scale of western Montana mining districts, Custer County’s extractive resources played important economic roles.
Timber
- harvested from the Ashland Ranger District
- used for posts, poles, firewood, and local construction
- provided supplemental income during winter months
Coal
- small lignite mines operated near Miles City, Kinsey, and along the Tongue River
- supplied local heating and blacksmithing needs
- offered seasonal employment but little long‑term stability
Clay & Bentonite
- extracted in small quantities for local construction and industrial uses
- contributed to the county’s modest industrial base
These industries provided essential materials and occasional employment, but their scale was too small to buffer the county from agricultural downturns.

Isolation & Transportation: Structural Barriers to Growth
Custer County’s economic geography was shaped by its transportation networks. Although Miles City was a major rail hub, much of the county’s ranching and farming population lived far from rail access. Rural families depended on:
- long wagon or truck hauls to Miles City or Forsyth
- high freight costs
- limited access to markets and manufactured goods
- seasonal road closures due to mud, snow, or flooding
This isolation increased the cost of doing business and reduced the county’s ability to absorb economic shocks.

Structural Vulnerabilities Before the Crash
By 1929, Custer County’s economy was already stretched thin. Its agricultural base was overextended, its dryland farms were failing, its ranchers were burdened by debt, and its extractive industries were too small to provide meaningful diversification. Many families — homesteaders, ranchers, and laborers alike — lived close to subsistence, leaving them exposed to even modest economic disruptions.
These conditions set the stage for the profound transformations that New Deal programs would bring, reshaping the county’s infrastructure, land use, and economic possibilities in the decade that followed.

ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF COUNTY IN NEW DEAL ERA

Ecological Conditions Entering the Depression (Custer County)
By the late 1920s, Custer County’s economy rested on an ecological foundation far more fragile than it appeared. The county’s ranching and dryland farming systems depended on a narrow set of environmental conditions: mountain‑fed flows in the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, variable prairie runoff in Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek, limited alluvial soils along the major river bottoms, and the resilience of mixed‑grass prairie already strained by decades of homesteading, overgrazing, and climatic variability. Although the landscape appeared productive — with hayfields along the rivers, large cattle and sheep operations, and scattered dryland farms — its ecological systems were deeply vulnerable to drought, erosion, and the structural limitations of early 20th‑century ranching infrastructure. When the national economy began to contract in 1929, Custer County entered the Depression already carrying the weight of these long‑standing ecological pressures.

Riparian Agriculture: A Narrow Ecological Corridor
The Yellowstone River and Tongue River valleys formed the ecological and economic core of Custer County. Hayfields, small grain plots, and irrigated pastures depended on water delivered through:
- small diversion structures
- hand‑dug ditches
- natural floodplain moisture
- early pump systems and gravity‑fed laterals
This patchwork of early irrigation masked the underlying aridity of the region. The valley’s alluvial soils were productive when water was available, but yields collapsed during drought years or when spring flows were insufficient.
By the late 1920s, the ecological limits of this system were becoming clear:
- low snowpack in the Bighorn Mountains reduced Tongue River flows
- early ditches leaked, breached, or delivered water unevenly
- sedimentation in small laterals reduced carrying capacity
- high winds dried exposed soils, increasing erosion
- late‑season shortages stressed hayfields and riparian pastures
Even modest reductions in water deliveries could shrink hay yields, stress livestock, and undermine the viability of riparian agriculture. The ecological health of these narrow corridors was inseparable from the reliability of mountain snowpack and early 20th‑century water infrastructure.

Dryland Farming: Soil Fragility and Climatic Stress
Beyond the river valleys, dryland wheat and forage farming dominated the homestead districts established during the 1910s. These landscapes were shaped by thin soils, low precipitation, and high winds. Wheat yields fluctuated sharply with rainfall, and the 1920s brought cycles of drought that reduced harvests and increased erosion. Homesteaders plowed large expanses of native grassland, exposing fragile soils to wind erosion and moisture loss.
By 1928–1929, ecological stress was visible across the uplands:
- blowouts formed in sandy and clayey soils
- dust storms swept across the benches and badlands
- crop failures became increasingly common
- soil organic matter declined due to continuous cropping
- abandoned fields reverted to weeds and early successional species
These conditions foreshadowed the ecological collapse that would strike the Great Plains in the early 1930s.

Rangelands and Livestock: Overgrazed Grasslands and Declining Forage
Livestock ranching dominated the county’s economy, but decades of grazing pressure had degraded some rangelands, reducing carrying capacity and increasing vulnerability to drought. Ranchers depended on hayfields for winter feed, but hay yields were tied to snowpack and the reliability of small diversion systems.
Ecological pressures included:
- overgrazed pastures on prairie benches and foothills
- encroachment of sagebrush and juniper in disturbed areas
- reduced forage during dry years
- increased reliance on purchased feed, straining ranch budgets
- erosion in badland drainages where vegetation had been weakened
The semi‑arid climate made ranching inherently risky, and the dry years of the late 1920s foreshadowed deeper hardships to come.

Upland Forests and Watershed Stress
The Ashland Ranger District — the county’s primary upland watershed — was also under ecological strain. Logging, fire suppression, and grazing altered forest structure and watershed function.
By the late 1920s, upland ecological stress included:
- reduced snow retention in logged areas
- increased runoff and erosion following heavy storms
- declining spring flows in small tributaries
- juniper expansion into former grasslands
- degraded riparian zones around springs and seeps
These upland changes directly affected downstream water availability and riparian health.

Environmental Variability: A Landscape on the Edge
Environmental variability added further strain. The late 1920s brought cycles of drought and erratic precipitation that stressed both riparian and upland operations.
- low snowpack reduced tributary flows
- high winds dried soils and increased erosion
- intense summer storms caused flash flooding in badland drainages
- drought reduced forage and hay yields
- grasshopper outbreaks devastated crops and rangeland vegetation
These climatic fluctuations exposed the county’s dependence on a narrow band of riparian land and a limited set of crops and livestock.

A County Already Under Ecological Stress
By 1929, Custer County’s ecological systems were already stretched thin. Dryland farming was collapsing, rangelands were stressed, and ranchers faced declining forage and rising costs. Water supplies were variable, infrastructure was aging, and many families lived close to subsistence. The county’s small population, geographic isolation, and dependence on livestock made it especially vulnerable to the ecological and economic shocks that preceded the Great Depression.
These conditions set the stage for the profound transformations that New Deal programs would bring, reshaping the county’s infrastructure, land use, and ecological possibilities in the decade that followed.

WHY THE COUNTY WAS IN THIS POSITION

Why the County Was in This Position in 1930 (Custer County)

Custer County entered the Great Depression carrying a set of structural vulnerabilities that had been building since the homestead boom of the 1910s. These pressures were rooted in the county’s dependence on livestock ranching, the volatility of dryland wheat and forage production, the semi‑arid climate of the Yellowstone–Tongue River Basin, and the long‑term decline of homestead‑era agriculture across the prairie benches. Although the landscape appeared productive — with irrigated hayfields along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, large cattle and sheep operations, and the commercial life of Miles City — the underlying economic and ecological foundations were fragile long before the national collapse of 1929.

A Ranching Economy Dependent on Narrow Environmental Conditions

Custer County’s ranching economy depended heavily on:

mountain snowpack feeding the Tongue River
spring flows in the Yellowstone River
productive riparian hayfields along both rivers
access to federal and state grazing lands
reliable stock‑water sources in the prairie and breaks

This natural hydrology functioned as the county’s “reservoir,” sustaining hayfields, pastures, and livestock operations. But the system was already strained by the late 1920s. Ranchers faced:

declining forage on overgrazed rangelands
rising costs for feed, fencing, and equipment
fluctuating wool and beef prices
long transportation distances from rural ranches to railheads in Miles City
harsh winters that could devastate herds

Ranching was productive, but it was also narrow, fragile, and dependent on a limited set of environmental and economic conditions.

Dryland Farming: A System Already in Collapse

Dryland wheat farmers faced even greater instability. Wheat yields fluctuated sharply with precipitation, and the 1920s brought cycles of drought that reduced harvests and increased reliance on borrowed capital. Many homesteaders who had arrived during the boom years of the 1910s were already struggling by 1925, facing:

declining soil moisture
wind erosion on exposed benches
grasshopper infestations
falling wheat prices
rising equipment and fuel costs

The dryland benches above Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the uplands south of Miles City were especially vulnerable, with thin soils and high winds that exposed plowed fields to erosion. By the end of the decade, many dryland farms were marginal or failing, and entire homestead districts were beginning to depopulate.

Rangeland Stress: Overgrazed Grasslands and Declining Carrying Capacity

Ranchers in the prairie and foothill districts faced their own ecological challenges. Decades of grazing pressure had degraded some rangelands, reducing carrying capacity and increasing vulnerability to drought. Ecological pressures included:

overgrazed pastures on upland benches
juniper and sagebrush encroachment in disturbed areas
reduced forage during dry years
increased reliance on purchased hay
erosion in badland drainages where vegetation had weakened

The semi‑arid climate made ranching inherently risky, and the dry years of the late 1920s foreshadowed deeper hardships to come.

Timber, Coal & Clay: Declining but Still Influential

Small‑scale extractive industries — timber, coal, and clay — had long supplemented the ranching economy, but by the 1920s they were in decline.

Timber harvesting in the Ashland Ranger District continued, but at a reduced scale.
Lignite coal mines near Miles City, Kinsey, and along the Tongue River operated intermittently.
Clay and bentonite deposits were worked only sporadically.

These industries still shaped local employment patterns, but their instability added another layer of vulnerability to the county’s economy.

Isolation & Transportation: A Structural Weakness

Custer County’s transportation geography added another structural weakness. Although Miles City was a major rail hub, much of the county’s population lived far from direct rail access. Rural ranchers and farmers depended on:

long wagon or truck hauls to Miles City or Forsyth
high freight costs
limited access to markets and manufactured goods
seasonal road closures due to mud, snow, or flooding

Miles City served as a commercial hub, but its economy was tightly tied to livestock, leaving few alternative sources of income when commodity prices fell.

Environmental Variability: A Landscape on the Edge

Environmental conditions also played a major role. The late 1920s brought cycles of drought and erratic precipitation that stressed both ranching and dryland farming.

low mountain snowpack reduced Tongue River flows
high winds dried soils and increased erosion
intense summer storms caused flash flooding in badland drainages
drought reduced forage and hay yields
grasshopper outbreaks devastated crops and rangeland vegetation

These climatic fluctuations exposed the county’s dependence on a narrow band of riparian land and a limited set of crops and livestock.

Underlying Structural Vulnerabilities

Underlying all of these factors was the county’s limited economic diversification. Ranchers struggled with debt, market volatility, and the high costs of transportation. Homesteaders confronted ecological limits that made long‑term success difficult. Timber and coal operations were unstable. Across the county, families were vulnerable to forces beyond their control — national commodity prices, federal policy decisions, and the unpredictable climate of the northern Great Plains.

A County Already Stretched Thin

By the time the national economy collapsed in 1929, Custer County was already stretched thin. Its agricultural base was overextended, its dryland farms were failing, its rangelands were stressed, and its communities were navigating economic systems that offered little protection against downturns. These conditions set the stage for the profound transformations that New Deal programs would bring, reshaping the county’s infrastructure, land use, and ecological possibilities in the decade that followed.

1930s United States Forest Service Aerial Photographs of the County

Click here for the Complete Collection of 1930s Montana Aerial Photographs: Searching: United States Forest Service Aerial Photographs

CLICK BELOW FOR SHORT CLIP OF 1930s FILM ON THE CONDITIONS OF THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND

SEE BELOW FOR RESEARCH ON NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN THE COUNTY

KNOWN NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN COUNTY

KNOWN NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN CUSTER COUNTY

Project / Program	Administrator	Agency	Description	Year(s)	Source(s)
Miles City Civic Improvements	City of Miles City	WPA	Street grading, sidewalk and curb repairs, drainage work, public building improvements	1935–1939	MHS WPA List; Miles City Star
Miles City Public School Repairs	Miles City School District	WPA	Heating upgrades, window replacement, classroom repairs, grounds improvements	1936–1938	MHS WPA List
County Road & Culvert Projects – Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek & Mizpah Corridors	Custer County	WPA	Road surfacing, culverts, ditching, badlands erosion control along major ranch routes	1936–1939	MHS WPA List; County Minutes
CCC Camp F‑55 (Ashland Ranger District)	USFS – Custer NF (Ashland District)	CCC	Road building, timber stand improvement, fire suppression, erosion control, trail construction	1934–1942	CCC Legacy; Fort Missoula CCC Map
CCC Camp F‑116 (Tongue River Breaks)	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Range improvements, fencing, spring development, gully stabilization, lookout construction	1935–1941	CCC Legacy
CCC Watershed Projects – Pumpkin Creek & Mizpah Creek	USFS / SCS	CCC	Check dams, gully stabilization, timber thinning, trail work, spring protection	1936–1942	SCS Records; CCC Legacy
RA Submarginal Land Purchases – Abandoned Homesteads	Resettlement Administration	RA	Acquisition of failed dryland farms; consolidation into grazing units and watershed protection areas	1935–1937	RA Records; NARA
FSA Rehabilitation Loans – Ranch & Farm Stabilization	Farm Security Administration	FSA	Low‑interest loans, livestock purchases, equipment pools, farm‑management assistance	1937–1942	FSA Records
SCS Range Rehabilitation – Prairie & Foothill Districts	SCS	SCS	Reseeding, contour furrows, stock‑water development, erosion control, grazing‑rotation plans	1937–1942	SCS Records; MSL GIS
SCS Erosion Control – Tongue River & Pumpkin Creek Tributaries	SCS	SCS	Gully stabilization, check dams, willow planting, badlands erosion‑control structures	1938–1942	SCS Records
REA Electrification – Rural Custer County	REA Cooperatives	REA	Rural line construction, farm electrification, pump installation, home wiring	1937–1942	REA Annual Reports
NYA Training Programs – Miles City	Miles City Schools	NYA	Vocational training, student labor, carpentry and shop programs	1936–1942	NYA Records
County Water System & Well Improvements	Custer County	PWA / WPA	Well upgrades, pump installations, small‑scale water‑system improvements for schools and public buildings	1934–1938	Living New Deal; County Minutes
Highway Improvements – Miles City to Broadus & Forsyth	Montana Highway Department	PWA	Road surfacing, culverts, drainage improvements on key transportation corridors	1934–1938	MDT Records
Fire Lookout Construction – Ashland Ranger District	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Lookout towers, access trails, communication lines, firebreaks	1935–1941	USFS Archives; CCC Legacy
Stock‑Water Reservoirs – Prairie & Badlands Districts	SCS / Custer County	SCS / WPA	Small reservoirs, dugouts, spillways, erosion‑control basins across ranching districts	1936–1942	SCS Records; County Minutes

Source Notes

All New Deal project listings in this table are based on publicly available, verifiable sources. No internal, restricted, or unpublished archives were accessed. Each project is included only if it appears in at least one of the following categories of documentation:

Montana Historical Society (MHS) – WPA Project Lists

Statewide inventories of Works Progress Administration projects compiled from official WPA records and county submissions. Includes Custer County listings for road work, school repairs, culverts, and civic improvements.

Living New Deal (University of California, Berkeley)

A national database of New Deal public works, drawing from National Archives holdings, federal agency reports, state records, and local newspapers. Provides documentation for WPA, PWA, REA, and NYA projects in Custer County.

Montana State Library – New Deal GIS Map

A statewide spatial dataset mapping WPA, CCC, PWA, NYA, and SCS projects using federal and state records. Includes CCC camps in the Ashland Ranger District, SCS erosion‑control sites, and WPA road projects.

CCC Legacy – Montana CCC Camp Lists

A national registry of Civilian Conservation Corps camps, including camp numbers, locations, administrative agencies, and years of operation. Documents CCC camps in the Ashland Ranger District and their associated project areas.

Fort Missoula CCC Camp Map (Montana Historical Society / MSL)

An interactive map documenting CCC camps and project areas across Montana, including southeastern Montana’s forest districts. Provides spatial confirmation of CCC work in the Tongue River breaks and upland forests.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Region 1 Historical Summaries

Publicly available histories of CCC work on national forests, including:

road building
trail construction
timber‑stand improvement
fire lookouts
watershed projects
spring development

Covers CCC activity in the Custer National Forest – Ashland Ranger District.

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) – Technical Reports & Project Summaries

Published SCS documentation of:

erosion‑control structures
check dams
stock‑water development
contour furrows
gully stabilization
range rehabilitation

Includes Custer County watershed work in the Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek drainages.

Resettlement Administration (RA) & Farm Security Administration (FSA) Records

Publicly available summaries of:

submarginal land purchases
homestead‑era land consolidation
rehabilitation loans
cooperative equipment pools
ranch and farm stabilization programs

Document RA and FSA activity across southeastern Montana, including Custer County.

Rural Electrification Administration (REA) – Annual Reports

Public documentation of rural line construction, cooperative formation, and electrification projects in Custer County between 1937 and 1942.

Montana Department of Transportation (MDT) – Historical Highway Records

Published summaries of PWA‑ and WPA‑funded road and bridge improvements, including:

Miles City–Broadus corridor
Miles City–Forsyth corridor
county road surfacing
culvert installation
drainage improvements

Local Newspapers (Miles City Star, Forsyth Independent, Powder River Examiner)

Contemporary reporting on:

county commissioner actions
project approvals
CCC camp activities
WPA road and school projects
REA cooperative formation

These newspapers provide essential local context and verification.

County Commissioner Minutes (Referenced via Newspapers & State Lists)

Projects attributed to county commissioners are based on public references in newspapers and state WPA lists, not on unpublished minutes.

National Youth Administration (NYA) – Montana Program Summaries

Public documentation of NYA training programs in Miles City and rural Custer County schools, including shop programs, vocational training, and student labor.

TWO EXAMPLES OF NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY Project 1: WPA Civic Improvements & Public Works in Miles City and Rural Districts

Program Family: Civic Infrastructure, Employment Relief Lenses: Rural modernization, public investment, community stability, labor relief, small‑town transformation

By the early 1930s, Miles City — Custer County’s commercial, administrative, and social center — was facing a convergence of economic contraction, failing infrastructure, and rising unemployment. The collapse of livestock and wool prices rippled across the county, reducing wages, shuttering small businesses, and leaving many ranching families without stable income. Roads were deeply rutted and often impassable during spring thaws; culverts failed during cloudbursts; public buildings were aging; and the county lacked the tax base to address these problems. Into this landscape stepped the Works Progress Administration (WPA), whose projects would reshape the civic identity of Miles City and provide a lifeline to rural residents across Custer County.

WPA crews undertook a sweeping program of public works that touched nearly every corner of Miles City and its surrounding districts. They graded, graveled, and rebuilt the town’s street network, transforming muddy, seasonally impassable roads into reliable transportation corridors. These improvements enabled ranchers to bring wool, cattle, and hay to market, allowed school buses to operate more consistently, and connected outlying neighborhoods that had previously been isolated during spring runoff or winter storms. WPA workers installed culverts, improved drainage ditches, and stabilized roadbeds along key routes leading to Kinsey, Volborg, Locate, and the Tongue River Valley.

Public buildings received equally significant attention. WPA laborers repaired classrooms, upgraded heating systems, installed new windows, and improved school grounds. These upgrades modernized facilities that had not been updated since the 1910s and supported rural education at a time when many families were struggling to keep children in school. WPA sewing rooms provided employment for women, producing clothing, bedding, and supplies for relief programs, hospitals, and schools across the county.

The WPA also invested in civic and recreational infrastructure. Crews improved fairgrounds, repaired community buildings, and constructed small parks and public gathering spaces in Miles City. These projects strengthened community life and provided venues for events, dances, livestock shows, and celebrations that helped sustain morale during the Depression.

What made the WPA program distinctive in Custer County was its integration with the ranching economy. Many WPA workers were ranch hands, seasonal laborers, or homesteaders whose incomes had collapsed with falling livestock prices and the failure of dryland farms. WPA wages allowed families to remain on their land, purchase supplies, and avoid foreclosure or out‑migration. The program also supported local businesses through the purchase of gravel, lumber, tools, and services, circulating federal dollars through the community at a time when private capital had evaporated.

The legacy of WPA work in Miles City and rural Custer County is still visible today. The town’s street grid, culverts, public buildings, and civic spaces bear the imprint of 1930s labor — enduring reminders of the transformative impact of federal investment in one of eastern Montana’s most important regional centers.

CUSTER COUNTY Project 2: CCC & SCS Rangeland Rehabilitation in the Ashland Ranger District and Tongue River Breaks

Program Family: Land & Agriculture (CCC, SCS) Lenses: Rangeland restoration, erosion control, drought resilience, ecological engineering, rural livelihoods

The Ashland Ranger District — the forested uplands rising above the mixed‑grass prairie — was among the most ecologically stressed areas in Custer County at the start of the Depression. Decades of overgrazing, drought cycles, and wind erosion had depleted native grasses, exposed soils, and reduced carrying capacity for livestock. Ranchers in these sparsely populated areas faced declining forage, rising feed costs, and limited access to capital. Many operations were on the brink of collapse. Into this fragile landscape came the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), whose coordinated interventions would become some of the most significant New Deal projects in southeastern Montana.

CCC enrollees stationed at Camp F‑55 (Ashland Ranger District) and Camp F‑116 (Tongue River Breaks) undertook an ambitious program of rangeland rehabilitation. They constructed hundreds of small‑scale erosion‑control structures — check dams, contour furrows, rock‑lined spillways, and brush weirs — designed to slow runoff, trap sediment, and rebuild soil profiles. These structures stabilized gullies carved by years of drought and overuse, preventing further degradation and creating microhabitats where native grasses could re‑establish. CCC crews also built stock ponds and earthen reservoirs that provided reliable water sources for livestock during dry years, reducing pressure on overused riparian areas and allowing ranchers to distribute grazing more evenly across their holdings.

SCS technicians provided the scientific backbone for this work. They conducted detailed soil surveys, mapped erosion hotspots, and developed grazing plans tailored to the semi‑arid ecology of the prairie and foothills. They introduced reseeding programs using drought‑tolerant native species such as western wheatgrass, needle‑and‑thread, and bluebunch wheatgrass, and they demonstrated new techniques for managing rangeland in a climate where precipitation was unpredictable and evaporation rates were high. SCS specialists also worked with ranchers to implement rotational‑grazing systems that allowed pastures to recover, reducing long‑term pressure on fragile soils.

CCC crews fenced exclosures to protect recovering vegetation, built two‑track access roads to remote pastures, and installed windbreaks to reduce soil movement during high‑wind events. These projects provided employment for young men from across Montana, many of whom gained skills in surveying, carpentry, hydrology, and land management. The work also strengthened relationships between federal agencies and local ranchers, who saw tangible improvements in forage production, water availability, and land stability.

The ecological impact of these projects was profound. Stabilized drainages slowed erosion and rebuilt soil structure; reseeded pastures increased biodiversity and forage quality; and stock ponds created new water sources for both livestock and wildlife. Over time, these interventions helped reverse decades of degradation and set the uplands on a more sustainable trajectory. The work also laid the foundation for postwar conservation efforts through county conservation districts and the SCS (later NRCS), which continued to promote soil health, water management, and rangeland resilience.

For ranching communities in the Ashland Ranger District and Tongue River breaks, the CCC and SCS were lifelines. They provided wages, technical expertise, and ecological restoration at a moment when private capital and local resources were insufficient to address the scale of the crisis. The legacy of this work remains visible in the restored grasslands, stabilized gullies, and stock ponds that still dot the landscape — enduring reminders of the New Deal’s transformative impact on Custer County’s uplands.

PROBABLE BUT UNCONFIRMED NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN THE COUNTY

PROBABLE BUT UNCONFIRMED NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN CUSTER COUNTY

Project / Program	Administrator	Agency	Probable Description	Estimated Year(s)	Evidence / Basis
Pumpkin Creek Watershed Check Dams	USFS / SCS	CCC / SCS	Small check dams, gully stabilization, erosion‑control structures in upper watershed	1936–1941	CCC camp proximity (Ashland District); SCS watershed maps; USFS project patterns
Mizpah Creek Tributary Erosion Control Work	SCS	SCS / WPA	Gully plugs, contour furrows, willow planting, small spillways	1937–1942	SCS erosion‑control patterns; WPA drainage projects in similar eastern Montana counties
Prairie Stock‑Water Reservoirs (Central & Southern Custer County)	SCS / Local Ranchers	SCS / WPA	Earthen reservoirs, dugouts, spillways, stock‑water ponds	1936–1942	SCS range‑improvement maps; CCC activity zones; RA land‑use plans
Ashland Ranger District Range Improvements	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Fencing, spring development, trail brushing, timber thinning	1934–1942	CCC camp proximity (F‑55, F‑116); USFS annual reports
Tongue River Breaks Firebreak Construction	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Hand‑cut firebreaks, slash cleanup, fuel‑reduction corridors	1935–1941	CCC fire‑management patterns; USFS fire‑control summaries
Miles City Fairgrounds or Park Improvements	City of Miles City	WPA	Grading, fencing, landscaping, small structure repairs	1935–1939	WPA patterns in similar Montana towns; local newspaper hints
County Roadside Tree or Shelterbelt Planting	Custer County / MDT	WPA	Roadside tree planting, windbreak establishment along improved roads	1936–1938	WPA roadside‑beautification programs statewide
Rural Schoolyard Improvements	Rural School Districts	WPA / NYA	Playground leveling, outhouse repairs, small building upgrades	1936–1942	NYA statewide school programs; WPA rural‑school patterns
Tongue River Bank Stabilization	Custer County / SCS	SCS / WPA	Riprap placement, willow planting, minor levee work	1937–1941	SCS riparian‑restoration patterns; WPA river‑corridor work statewide
Coal Mine Safety & Closure Work (Local Lignite Pits)	Custer County / USFS	WPA	Shaft closures, debris removal, slope stabilization	1937–1942	WPA mine‑safety programs; presence of small lignite mines
CCC Lookout Maintenance – Ashland Ranger District	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Lookout repairs, trail brushing, communication‑line maintenance	1935–1941	CCC project logs for adjacent districts; USFS lookout inventories
REA Line Extensions to Outlying Ranches	REA Cooperatives	REA	Line extensions to isolated ranches beyond main corridors	1938–1942	REA expansion maps; cooperative meeting summaries
Badlands Drainage Stabilization – Pumpkin Creek & Mizpah Creek	SCS	SCS	Check dams, gully plugs, erosion‑control terraces	1937–1942	SCS badlands‑stabilization patterns; proximity to CCC work zones
Timber Access Road Improvements – Ashland Ranger District	USFS – Custer NF	CCC	Road grading, culverts, drainage work for timber and fire access	1935–1941	CCC road‑building patterns; USFS timber‑access needs

Source Notes

Projects listed in this table are considered “probable but unconfirmed” because they appear in public records, maps, or secondary references, but lack a surviving formal project file or definitive listing. These entries are included only when supported by at least one of the following forms of evidence:

SCS Range Survey Maps & Erosion‑Control Sheets

Hand‑drawn stock ponds, check dams, contour furrows, and gully‑control structures in the Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Tongue River drainages that match known WPA or CCC‑era construction patterns but lack project numbers.

These maps often show:

small earthen reservoirs
gully plugs and check dams
contour furrows on eroding benches
early stock‑water developments

Their design and placement align with 1930s SCS and CCC practices.

Resettlement Administration (RA) Land‑Use Planning Files

Proposed fencing, wells, grazing improvements, and watershed treatments shown on RA maps for submarginal lands in Custer County, with unclear completion status.

These maps document:

abandoned homestead tracts
proposed grazing units
watershed‑stabilization plans
planned stock‑water developments

But they rarely indicate which projects were actually built.

CCC Camp Rosters & Work Summaries

References to “range work,” “gully control,” “trail work,” “firebreak construction,” or “agency projects” at CCC Camp F‑55 and CCC Camp F‑116 without detailed job sheets or site‑level documentation.

These summaries confirm:

erosion‑control work
timber‑stand improvement
spring development
trail brushing
firebreak construction

But not always the exact locations.

WPA Mentions in Local Newspapers

Articles in the Miles City Star, Forsyth Independent, and Powder River Examiner referencing:

“relief crews”
“WPA labor”
“road work”
“park improvements”
“schoolyard repairs”

These mentions indicate activity but lack project‑level detail.

County Commissioner Mentions (via Newspapers)

Public references to WPA or relief labor in commissioner discussions, but no surviving minutes or formal project documentation.

These often describe:

culvert installations
road grading
drainage work
small civic improvements

But without project numbers or agency confirmation.

NYA Program Notes

Scattered references to student carpentry, shop work, or schoolyard improvements in rural Custer County schools, without a consolidated project file.

These align with statewide NYA patterns but lack site‑specific documentation.

REA Annual Reports

Mentions of “farm pump installations” or rural line extensions in Custer County, without site‑level detail or project‑specific documentation.

These reports confirm general electrification activity, but not the precise ranches or corridors served.

SCS Field Notebooks

Notes on:

willow planting
riprap placement
bank stabilization
ditch erosion control
gully stabilization

along the Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek tributaries, but lacking formal project attribution.

These field notes match known SCS practices but do not always specify whether work was completed by SCS, WPA, CCC, or local cooperators.

Why These Projects Are Included

These entries are included cautiously and flagged as “probable” because they:

align with known New Deal project patterns
appear in multiple secondary references
match the timing and labor profiles of CCC, WPA, SCS, RA, or NYA programs
occur within documented CCC and SCS activity zones
reflect common 1930s conservation and relief practices

Future archival work — especially in NARA regional holdings, Forest Service archives, and county‑level collections — may confirm, revise, or remove these listings.

CLICK BELOW FOR 1930s FILM ON THE CONDITIONS OF THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND AFTER NEW DEAL PROJECTS

SEE BELOW FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ON THE COUNTY & RESEARCH NEEDS & OPPORTUNITIES

MAPS AND LAND RECORDS

Custer County’s Historical Maps and Land Records

Custer County’s historical maps and land records reveal a landscape shaped by the Yellowstone River, the Tongue River, the Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek drainages, and more than a century of ranching, dryland farming, freighting, military activity, and rural settlement. The county’s spatial history is defined by the interplay of major river valleys, badland breaks, mixed‑grass prairie, and the pine‑covered uplands of the Ashland Ranger District — each leaving a distinct cartographic imprint. Together, these layers form a record of ecological change, land use, and political transformation that continues to shape the county today.

Early GLO Survey Plats

Early General Land Office (GLO) survey plats provide the first systematic Euro‑American mapping of Custer County. Surveyors traced:

the Yellowstone and Tongue River corridors
Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, Sunday Creek, and other tributaries
the foothill benches and breaks that shaped early ranching and freighting routes
wagon roads, military trails, and early homestead claims
timbered slopes and upland meadows in the Ashland Ranger District

These plats capture the county at the moment when ranching, freighting, and early dryland farming were beginning to reshape the landscape, while also recording remnants of Indigenous travel routes, river crossings, and seasonal use areas.

USGS Topographic Maps

USGS topographic maps — from the early 15‑minute sheets to the modern 7.5‑minute quadrangles — trace the evolution of Custer County’s infrastructure and land use. They document:

the growth of Miles City as a livestock, commercial, and civic hub
the development of ranching along the Yellowstone, Tongue, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah valleys
the expansion of stock‑water reservoirs and dugouts across the prairie
CCC and USFS activity in the Ashland Ranger District
the early road network linking Miles City, Volborg, Kinsey, Locate, and rural districts
the transformation of homestead landscapes as dryland farms failed and ranches consolidated

Later editions capture the spread of REA power lines, improved county roads, and the long‑term ecological effects of New Deal conservation work.

Cadastral Records

Cadastral records provide a detailed view of land ownership and land‑use change across Custer County. These maps document:

the consolidation of failed homesteads into larger ranches
the shifting patterns of land tenure during and after the Depression
the influence of RA submarginal land purchases on grazing districts
the evolution of timber allotments and grazing permits in the Ashland Ranger District
the persistence of family ranches across multiple generations

These records are essential for understanding how land passed between families, companies, and agencies, and how ranching, freighting, and dryland agriculture reshaped the county’s valleys, benches, and uplands.

Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps

Sanborn Fire Insurance Maps provide some of the most detailed urban cartography available for Montana towns. In Custer County, surviving sheets for Miles City offer invaluable insight into early 20th‑century community life, documenting:

commercial blocks
public buildings
blacksmith shops, garages, and service stations
railroad‑adjacent warehouses and industrial structures
fire‑risk assessments for dense commercial districts

These maps capture Miles City during its transition from a frontier military supply point to a regional commercial and livestock‑shipping center.

Historic Highway Maps

Historic highway maps reveal the transportation corridors that linked rural communities to markets and services. Early state highway maps show:

the alignment and improvement of the Miles City–Broadus, Miles City–Forsyth, and Miles City–Ashland corridors
feeder roads connecting ranching districts to railheads and trading centers
the gradual improvement of rural roads, many upgraded or realigned through WPA and county‑administered New Deal projects
the emergence of CCC‑built access roads in the Ashland Ranger District

These maps illustrate how transportation infrastructure shaped settlement, commerce, and access to land across Custer County.

Together, These Maps Tell Custer County’s Spatial Story

Together, these maps and land records form a layered spatial history of Custer County — a record of how river valleys, prairie drainages, upland forests, military installations, homestead districts, and ranching communities reshaped the landscape over more than a century. They illuminate:

the county’s evolving land‑tenure systems, from homestead claims to consolidated ranches
the ecological transformations of its prairie benches, riparian valleys, and upland forests
the rise, collapse, and long‑term consolidation of dryland farming districts
the imprint of New Deal conservation, watershed engineering, and rangeland rehabilitation
the shifting relationships between ranching families, homesteaders, freighters, timber workers, and federal land managers
the enduring influence of CCC, SCS, RA, WPA, PWA, NYA, and REA programs on land use, access, and infrastructure

For researchers, educators, and community members, these cartographic sources are indispensable tools for understanding New Deal projects, rural land histories, military development, and the evolving relationship between people and place in one of Montana’s most historically layered counties.

They reveal how Custer County’s landscapes were mapped, grazed, farmed, irrigated, logged, electrified, militarized, and restored — and how these processes continue to shape the county’s identity today.

MONTANA GENERAL HIGHWAY MAPS OF THE COUNTY

FSA AND NEW DEAL PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE COUNTY

FSA & New Deal Photography in Custer County

Overview

Custer County holds a distinctive and often overlooked New Deal photographic landscape shaped by the Yellowstone River, the Tongue River, the Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek drainages, the badlands and prairie benches, and the pine‑covered uplands of the Ashland Ranger District. Unlike counties with large, unified FSA sequences, Custer County’s surviving Farm Security Administration (FSA), Resettlement Administration (RA), U.S. Forest Service (USFS), Soil Conservation Service (SCS), National Youth Administration (NYA), and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) photographs form a distributed but powerful visual record of:

irrigated ranching and hay production along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
CCC conservation labor in the Ashland Ranger District
SCS erosion‑control and range‑restoration projects on prairie benches and badland drainages
small‑town civic life in Miles City, Kinsey, Volborg, and rural communities
RA submarginal land purchases and homestead abandonment
transportation networks linking ranching districts to Miles City and regional railheads
timber work, fire management, and watershed projects in the Tongue River breaks

These images, taken between the early 1930s and early 1940s, document a county where federal investment, ranching adaptation, watershed engineering, and rural community life were deeply intertwined.

Custer County Themes & Image Sequences

The surviving photographic record clusters around several major themes:

irrigated ranching and stock‑water development in the Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys
small‑town civic life and public works in Miles City and rural communities
range work and erosion control on prairie benches and badland drainages
CCC and USFS conservation projects in the Ashland Ranger District
RA documentation of homestead failure and land consolidation
transportation networks linking ranching districts to railheads
timber, fire, and watershed management in upland forests

These themes mirror the county’s economic and ecological structure during the Depression and reveal how New Deal programs reshaped its landscapes.

Irrigated Ranching & Stock‑Water Development

Custer County’s photographic record captures the daily realities of ranching in a landscape defined by mountain snowpack, irrigation ditches, and narrow riparian corridors. Surviving images show:

haying operations on irrigated meadows along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
headgates, flumes, and early ditch systems maintained by local irrigation districts
earthen reservoirs and dugouts built by ranchers, WPA crews, or CCC enrollees
lambing sheds, branding grounds, and seasonal labor camps
hand‑dug wells and windmills on prairie benches

These photographs reveal how ranching families adapted to drought, fluctuating water supplies, and the technical labor required to sustain agriculture in a semi‑arid river‑prairie environment.

Small‑Town Civic Life & Public Works in Miles City and Rural Communities

Miles City — Custer County’s civic, commercial, and cultural center — appears in New Deal photographs as a resilient ranching and freighting town undergoing rapid modernization. Surviving images show:

WPA street grading, culvert installation, and drainage improvements
school repairs, NYA shop programs, and community‑building upgrades
storefronts, service stations, and civic buildings anchoring the regional economy
daily life in agricultural neighborhoods and rural districts

Photographs from Kinsey, Volborg, and other rural communities document similar patterns: small‑town infrastructure strengthened by federal relief programs during the hardest years of the Depression.

Range Work & Erosion Control on Prairie Benches and Badland Drainages

SCS and CCC photographs document the ecological crisis unfolding across Custer County’s rangelands in the 1930s. Images often depict:

gully erosion in Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Tongue River tributaries
contour furrows, check dams, and brush weirs
reseeding efforts using drought‑tolerant native grasses
fenced exclosures protecting recovering vegetation

These images show the early scientific foundations of rangeland conservation — a turning point in how ranchers, federal agencies, and local communities approached land stewardship.

CCC & USFS Conservation Projects in the Ashland Ranger District

The Ashland Ranger District was a major center of CCC activity, and surviving photographs capture:

road building and trail construction through forested uplands
timber stand improvement and fire‑hazard reduction
lookout towers, firebreaks, and communication lines
spring developments and watershed stabilization projects

These images highlight the CCC’s dual mission: ecological restoration and the training of young men in forestry, engineering, and land management.

RA Documentation of Homestead Failure & Land Consolidation

Custer County’s RA and FSA photographs often focus on the aftermath of the homestead era. They show:

abandoned cabins, collapsed barns, and wind‑scoured fields
families relocating or consolidating landholdings
submarginal tracts targeted for RA purchase
the stark contrast between failed dryland farms and surviving irrigated ranches

These images form a visual archive of the human and ecological consequences of the 1910s homestead boom — and the federal response that followed.

Transportation Networks Linking Ranching Districts to Railheads

Because Custer County’s economy depended on ranching, freighting, and regional trade, transportation was a defining theme. Photographs document:

wagon roads and early truck routes across prairie benches
WPA‑improved roads connecting Miles City to rural districts
culverts, bridges, and drainage structures built to withstand runoff from badland terrain
trucks hauling wool, cattle, and supplies to railheads

These images reveal how mobility shaped economic survival in a county where ranching districts depended on access to Miles City’s markets and services.

Timber, Fire, and Watershed Management in Upland Forests

USFS and CCC photographs from the Ashland Ranger District show:

timber cutting, post‑and‑pole production, and fuelwood gathering
fire suppression crews, lookout towers, and early fire‑management systems
watershed stabilization in forested headwaters
CCC enrollees working in rugged, remote terrain

These images illustrate the ecological importance of Custer County’s uplands — and the federal commitment to managing them during the New Deal.

How These Themes Work Together

Taken together, these photographic themes reveal a county defined by:

ranching resilience
ecological vulnerability
federal conservation intervention
community adaptation
the lived experience of rural families during the Depression

They show a landscape where river valleys, prairie benches, and upland forests intersect with federal labor, scientific conservation, and local knowledge, creating a visual record as compelling as any in Montana.

Featured Images: Custer County

(We will populate this once you provide your selected images or once we extract them from the FSA/RA/USFS/SCS corpus.)

RESEARCH NEEDED, RESEARCH PATHWAYS, & LOCAL RESOURCES

RESEARCH NEEDED

There Is So Much More to Be Revealed

“—There is so much more to be revealed that is mostly held in the cultural memory of the families and individuals who have lived in Custer County for generations, and those who work closely with the land, water, and resources of the county — people who are intimately CONNECTED to this place. Additional knowledge rests in local historical societies, community museums, and family archives, waiting to be shared with the world.”

The New Deal footprint in Custer County is far larger than the surviving records suggest. What can be documented today — the WPA street and drainage work in Miles City, the CCC erosion‑control and forestry projects in the Ashland Ranger District, the SCS range‑restoration work across the Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek benches, the RA submarginal land purchases that reshaped failing homestead districts, the REA lines that brought electricity to isolated ranches — represents only a fraction of the labor, memory, and landscape change that unfolded across the county during the 1930s. Much of this history lives not in federal archives but in the lived experience of families who weathered the Depression, in the stories passed down through ranch houses, sheep camps, and prairie homesteads, and in the quiet infrastructure still embedded in the land: a stock pond tucked into a sagebrush draw, a hand‑built culvert on a county road, a windbreak planted by CCC boys above a Tongue River hayfield.

Across Custer County, elders, ranchers, and long‑time residents hold knowledge of projects that never made it into official reports — the WPA crew that rebuilt a washed‑out road after a spring cloudburst, the CCC enrollees who cut firebreaks along the Tongue River breaks during a dangerous fire season, the SCS technician who taught new grazing practices that saved a family’s pasture, the CCC boys who developed a spring that still waters cattle today. Local museums, historical societies, and family collections contain scattered references, photographs, maps, and oral histories waiting to be connected into a fuller narrative. These fragments, when assembled, reveal a landscape profoundly shaped by federal investment, local labor, and the resilience of rural communities.

There is still so much more to uncover — stories held in attics and family albums, in county ledgers and forgotten file drawers, in the memories of people whose parents and grandparents lived through the hardest years of the Depression. In Miles City, families recall WPA workers who kept the town functioning when collapsing budgets threatened basic services. In the Ashland Ranger District, ranchers still point to stock ponds, check dams, and reseeded pastures that trace their origins to CCC and SCS crews. Along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, residents remember the early SCS technicians who walked the drainages long before conservation districts formalized their work.

As this project grows, these voices and materials will help illuminate the full scope of New Deal work in Custer County, revealing a history that is not only infrastructural but deeply human — rooted in the land, in the creeks, ridges, and prairies that sustain life here, and in the people who have cared for this place across generations.

RESEARCH PATHWAYS

Research Pathways and Collaborative Opportunities (Custer County)
Custer County’s New Deal history is only partially documented, and the work of this project is to uncover the full scope of federal activity across the Yellowstone River corridor, the Tongue River Valley, the Pumpkin Creek and Mizpah Creek drainages, the prairie ranching districts, and the pine‑covered uplands of the Ashland Ranger District. What is known today — CCC conservation and watershed projects in the uplands, WPA civic improvements in Miles City and rural communities, SCS erosion‑control and range‑restoration work across the benches, RA submarginal land purchases, FSA rehabilitation programs, and REA electrification — represents only a fraction of what occurred here between 1933 and 1942.
Much of the county’s New Deal footprint remains unrecorded or exists only in fragments. There is not yet a complete list of WPA projects, nor a clear picture of the full extent of CCC work on roads, trails, firebreaks, spring developments, and watershed structures in the Ashland Ranger District. The details of SCS demonstration pastures, grazing‑management programs, and erosion‑control structures are still incomplete, as are the specific contributions of federal agencies to school facilities, community buildings, rural water systems, and stock‑water infrastructure. Many projects appear only as brief mentions in newspapers, scattered photographs, partial USFS references, or memories held by families and communities. These gaps point to a much larger story of how federal programs shaped Custer County’s ranching economy, upland forests, prairie homesteads, and transportation networks.
In the Ashland Ranger District, CCC and USFS projects — road building, trail construction, timber stand improvement, firebreak cutting, spring development, and erosion‑control structures — are often documented only through brief camp summaries or scattered photographs. Many of these sites remain visible on the landscape but have never been mapped or described in detail. Early SCS watershed surveys and RA land‑use planning files also remain underexplored; these records contain invaluable information about submarginal land purchases, abandoned homesteads, grazing‑unit planning, and early conservation strategies that shaped the county’s long‑term land‑use patterns.
In Miles City, Kinsey, Volborg, and the surrounding ranching districts, the archival record is equally complex. WPA projects were administered through local governments, and many records were never consolidated at the state level. School improvements, street grading, culvert installations, and drainage projects often appear only in local newspapers or in the memories of families whose parents and grandparents worked on relief crews. NYA shop programs — which trained young people in carpentry, mechanics, and home economics — are similarly scattered across school district archives, personal collections, and oral histories.
The Montana New Deal Heritage Partnership is committed to turning over every stone in Custer County. Every archive, collection, map, set of agency files, local record, and oral history may contain essential pieces of this history. To build a complete and publicly accessible record of the county’s New Deal landscape, we need to identify every project, map every site, and document every program that operated here — across irrigated valleys, prairie ranchlands, upland forests, and rural communities. This work depends on active collaboration from local historians, multi‑generational ranch families, community elders, museums, county offices, federal and state agencies, researchers, and community members. Anyone who holds documents, photographs, stories, or leads — no matter how small — contributes to the larger effort to understand how federal programs reshaped Custer County during the New Deal era.

Research Guide for Collaborators – Custer County
For Hydrology, Watersheds & Stock‑Water Systems
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) / NRCS Archives Erosion‑control plans, watershed surveys, stock‑water development maps for the Yellowstone, Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek drainages.
U.S. Forest Service (USFS) – Custer National Forest (Ashland Ranger District) Spring‑development records, upland watershed assessments, CCC‑era hydrological improvements in the Tongue River breaks.
MSU Extension Historical grazing bulletins, dryland agriculture reports, and early water‑management guidance for eastern Montana ranching districts.

For CCC Camps in the Ashland Ranger District
CCC Legacy Camp rosters, project summaries, and administrative histories for Camps F‑55 and F‑116.
Fort Missoula CCC District Maps Project areas, road networks, fire lookouts, erosion‑control structures, and conservation sites across the Ashland Ranger District.
USFS Region 1 Historical Summaries Timber stand improvement, trail construction, fire‑management work, spring development, and watershed stabilization.

For WPA/PWA Civic Improvements
Montana Newspapers (Miles City Star, Forsyth Independent, Powder River Examiner) Project approvals, relief‑crew reports, school and street improvements, culvert installations.
County Commissioner Mentions WPA labor references, rural road work, drainage upgrades, public‑building repairs (often documented indirectly through newspaper reporting).
MHS WPA Lists Official project summaries for Miles City and rural Custer County districts.

For FSA/RA/USFS/SCS Photography
Library of Congress FSA/OWI Collection Rural‑life images, irrigated ranching, homestead abandonment, and RA documentation of submarginal lands.
USFS Photographic Archives CCC forestry, fire, and watershed projects in the Ashland Ranger District.
SCS Photo Files Erosion‑control structures, contour furrows, stock‑water developments, and range‑restoration work.
Local Museums & Historical Societies (Range Riders Museum, Miles City) Community‑held photographs, family albums, uncataloged prints, CCC camp snapshots, and ranch‑level images.

For Ranch‑Level Histories
- Multi‑generational ranching families along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- Prairie ranchers across the Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Sunday Creek districts
- Local oral histories documenting CCC stock ponds, SCS reseeding, WPA road work, RA land purchases, and early electrification
- Family archives containing maps, letters, photographs, and work logs from the 1930s–1940s
Immediate Research Opportunities (Custer County)
Local Project Files
Systematic identification of WPA, CCC, SCS, PWA, RA, and REA project files in county, state, and federal archives — especially those tied to Miles City, Kinsey, Volborg, the Tongue River Valley, and the Ashland Ranger District.
Commissioner Minutes
Detailed review of 1930s Custer County commissioner minutes for project approvals, road contracts, culvert installations, drainage work, school improvements, and civic infrastructure funded through WPA and PWA programs. Many WPA references appear only in newspapers; the underlying administrative record remains largely unmapped.
Ranch‑Level Histories
Oral histories and family archives from ranches along the Yellowstone, Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek districts — documenting:
- CCC‑built stock ponds and spring developments
- SCS reseeding and contour‑furrow projects
- early electrification through REA cooperatives
- RA land purchases and homestead abandonment
These family‑held materials are essential for reconstructing the county’s on‑the‑ground New Deal landscape.
Upland Conservation Work
Collaboration with USFS Region 1 and Custer National Forest archives to document CCC projects in the Ashland Ranger District, including:
- trail systems
- fire lookouts and firebreaks
- erosion‑control structures
- timber stand improvement
- spring development and watershed stabilization
Many of these sites remain visible but have never been formally mapped or described.
Photographic Provenance
Tracing local prints, museum holdings, and community copies of FSA, RA, USFS, SCS, NYA, and CCC photographs related to Custer County — especially:
- Ashland Ranger District CCC camp documentation
- RA images of homestead failure and land consolidation
- SCS erosion‑control and range‑restoration photographs
- rural school and NYA shop‑program images
- ranch‑level photographs of stock‑water systems and seasonal labor
These images are scattered across family albums, museum collections, and federal archives.
Hydrology, Watersheds & Stock‑Water Systems
Research into early SCS watershed surveys, USFS spring‑development files, and RA land‑use planning documents for:
- stock‑water reservoirs and dugouts
- gully stabilization in prairie and badland drainages
- spring protection in the Ashland Ranger District
- early water‑delivery improvements on ranches
These records are essential for understanding how federal programs reshaped water systems across Custer County.

Education & NYA
Documentation of NYA projects and student experiences in Miles City, Kinsey, and rural school districts reveals a scattered but compelling record of Depression‑era youth training programs. Surviving references point to:
- carpentry and mechanics shop programs
- schoolyard improvements and playground leveling
- small building repairs and maintenance projects
- vocational training initiatives in home economics, agriculture, and trades
These programs appear in school board notes, local newspapers, and family recollections, but they lack a consolidated narrative. NYA work provided essential skills for young people in ranching families, offering pathways into trades, mechanics, and community service at a time when employment opportunities were scarce.

Homestead, RA & FSA Landscapes
Research into RA submarginal land purchases, FSA rehabilitation loans, and homestead‑era abandonment across the Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Tongue River districts reveals the dramatic transition from failed dryland farming to consolidated ranching landscapes. These records illuminate:
- the collapse of marginal homestead districts
- the acquisition of abandoned tracts for grazing units
- the stabilization of struggling ranch families through FSA loans
- the long‑term shift toward larger, more resilient ranch operations
These landscapes hold the physical and documentary traces of the county’s transformation during the 1930s — a shift from speculative dryland agriculture to a more sustainable ranching economy supported by federal intervention.

Transportation Networks
Identification of WPA and PWA road‑building projects across Custer County is a major research priority. Probable and confirmed projects include:
- improvements to the Miles City–Broadus corridor
- rural road grading and culvert construction in the Tongue River and Pumpkin Creek districts
- drainage stabilization along badland routes prone to runoff and erosion
- CCC‑built access routes in the Ashland Ranger District
These transportation projects shaped mobility, commerce, and community life during and after the Depression, linking ranching districts, rural schools, and agricultural valleys to regional markets and railheads.

LOCAL RESOURCES

Custer County’s New Deal history is distributed across county, state, federal, and watershed institutions. Researchers, educators, and community partners can use the guide below to identify where specific types of records are most likely to be found.

Multi‑Generational Ranch Families & Community Historians
- family photo albums documenting lambing, branding, haying, fencing, and seasonal ranch work
- unrecorded stories of CCC, WPA, SCS, and RA projects on or near ranch properties
- knowledge of local place names, informal work camps, and seasonal movement patterns
- memories of early stock‑water systems, dugouts, windmills, grazing districts, and watershed improvements
These families are crucial collaborators because they hold detailed, place‑based memories that can confirm project locations, identify people in photographs, and connect federal records to specific ranches, drainages, and communities across the Yellowstone, Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek valleys.

Range Riders Museum — Miles City, MT
The Range Riders Museum holds a wide range of materials relevant to New Deal research:
- photographs of ranching, dryland farming, CCC camps, and early community life
- artifacts from Miles City and surrounding rural districts
- homesteading records, maps, and early agricultural tools
- exhibits documenting freighting, ranching, military history, and regional settlement
Museum collections complement federal archives and are essential for identifying New Deal–era images, artifacts, and documents tied to county‑administered projects.

Custer County Historical Society
The Historical Society coordinates local collecting efforts and often serves as a bridge between families, researchers, and institutions. Its holdings include:
- oral histories from ranching families
- community scrapbooks and uncataloged photographs
- local newspaper clippings documenting WPA, CCC, and NYA activity
- maps, diaries, and family documents related to homesteading and ranching
These materials reveal how New Deal programs were experienced at the community level.

Custer County Government Offices
County offices hold essential administrative records showing how New Deal projects were proposed, approved, funded, and implemented. Key sources include:
- commissioner minutes referencing WPA labor, road work, culverts, and drainage projects
- school district records documenting NYA shop programs and WPA building repairs
- road and bridge files showing PWA and WPA improvements
- early water‑system and well‑development records
These records can be matched with federal files to reconstruct project timelines and local decision‑making processes.

Custer County Conservation District
The Conservation District maintains some of the most important long‑term records for understanding land and water management in the county. Its holdings often include:
- SCS range‑survey maps and erosion‑control plans
- stock‑water development records (dugouts, reservoirs, spring improvements)
- early grazing‑management plans and demonstration‑plot notes
- watershed assessments for the Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek
Because many New Deal conservation projects were never formally cataloged at the state level, the Conservation District is a critical partner for reconstructing on‑the‑ground work in the 1930s.

Custer County Extension Office
The Extension Office in Miles City has deep ties to agricultural development and often preserves community‑level knowledge that bridges federal and local histories. Its files may include:
- grazing practices and dryland‑farming bulletins for eastern Montana
- demonstration‑plot records and early soil‑improvement programs
- 4‑H and youth‑training initiatives connected to NYA programs
- ranching practices, drought‑response strategies, and early water‑management notes
Extension agents frequently hold personal knowledge of families, ranch histories, and undocumented projects — making them invaluable collaborators.

State, Federal, and Watershed Agencies
Custer County’s New Deal landscape intersects with a wide range of agencies whose work shaped rangeland management, watershed stabilization, stock‑water development, upland forestry, transportation networks, homestead‑era land consolidation, and rural electrification. Each agency holds records, maps, photographs, or institutional memory essential to reconstructing the county’s federal footprint between 1933 and 1942.

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
(formerly Soil Conservation Service – SCS)
- historic soil surveys for the Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, and Mizpah Creek watersheds
- SCS range‑survey maps and erosion‑control sheets
- contour‑furrow, check‑dam, and reseeding documentation
- stock‑water development records (dugouts, reservoirs, spring improvements)
- grazing‑management plans and demonstration‑plot notes
NRCS holds the core technical record of Custer County’s New Deal conservation work. Because the county’s economy depended on rangeland health, stock‑water availability, and erosion control, NRCS/SCS files contain the scientific backbone of 1930s interventions — maps, surveys, and engineering notes that rarely appear in federal summaries. These records are indispensable for locating CCC/SCS structures on the ground and understanding how conservation reshaped the prairie.

Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (FWP)
- early wildlife surveys in the Ashland Ranger District and Tongue River breaks
- habitat assessments referencing CCC/SCS watershed work
- early access‑route and recreation‑site development records
- documentation of pre‑designation wildlife conditions in prairie and badland districts
FWP provides ecological context for New Deal conservation in the Ashland Ranger District and prairie drainages. Early wildlife surveys, habitat assessments, and recreation‑site planning help researchers understand how CCC and SCS projects influenced game populations, riparian health, and public access.

Montana Department of Transportation (MDOT)
- construction logs for the Miles City–Broadus and Miles City–Forsyth corridors
- bridge and culvert plans for badland drainages
- WPA‑era road‑grading and drainage‑improvement records
- early state highway maps showing pre‑ and post‑New Deal alignments
Because Custer County’s ranching districts depended on access to Miles City’s markets, transportation was a lifeline. MDOT records document how WPA and PWA projects connected isolated ranching districts to railheads, stabilized badland drainages, and improved regional corridors. These files help reconstruct the infrastructure backbone that shaped mobility, commerce, and community life.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS)
Custer National Forest – Ashland Ranger District
- CCC camp reports for Camp F‑55 and Camp F‑116
- trail, road, and fire‑lookout construction maps
- timber stand improvement and fire‑management documentation
- spring‑development and watershed‑stabilization records
- CCC project photographs and camp newsletters
USFS administered both CCC camps in Custer County and oversaw the county’s most intensive New Deal conservation work. Its archives contain project maps, camp reports, fire‑management files, and watershed‑restoration documentation for the Ashland Ranger District. These records are essential for mapping CCC roads, trails, firebreaks, and spring developments that still shape the uplands today.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)
- early range‑condition surveys and carrying‑capacity assessments
- stock‑water development files (dugouts, wells, pipelines)
- homestead‑relinquishment and land‑classification documents
Custer County contains vast BLM rangelands, making BLM central to understanding grazing districts, stock‑water systems, homestead relinquishment, and early range‑condition surveys. Many New Deal conservation efforts occurred on what later became BLM land. Their files help reconstruct how federal policy reshaped public rangelands and ranching economies.

WEBSITE ARCHIVE AND DIGITAL COLLECTION

DIGITIZED NEW DEAL DOCUMENTS FOR THE COUNTY

WEBSITE ARCHIVE — Click on the links below to access collections held within this project

Photographs

FSA Photographs

See the FSA Image Index for Custer County for a detailed list of images, IDs, and links. Use this section to embed selected images, add interpretive captions, and link to local or museum‑held prints.

Click to Access Library of Congress FSA Montana Photographs

Museum Photographs

[Placeholder for museum‑held images related to Custer County New Deal projects — including Miles City, Kinsey, Volborg, the Tongue River Valley, and rural districts.]

Individual Contributions

[Placeholder for community‑contributed photographs and family collections documenting ranching, CCC work, SCS conservation projects, and rural life.]

Other Sources

[Placeholder for additional photographic sources (Range Riders Museum, MHS, NARA, USFS Region 1, SCS photo files, local archives, etc.).]

Historic Newspaper Articles for Custer County Related to New Deal Projects

Click to Access Historic Montana Newspapers Click to Access Chronicling America – Historic American Newspapers

Upload, annotate, and organize New Deal–related newspaper articles here.

CCC — Civilian Conservation Corps

[Upload and annotate CCC‑related newspaper articles here — Ashland Ranger District, Tongue River breaks, forestry work, fire management.]

WPA — Works Progress Administration

[Upload and annotate WPA‑related newspaper articles here — road work, school repairs, civic improvements in Miles City and rural districts.]

REA — Rural Electrification Administration

[Upload and annotate REA‑related newspaper articles here — line extensions, cooperative formation, rural electrification.]

SCS — Soil Conservation Service

[Upload and annotate SCS‑related newspaper articles here — erosion control, contour furrows, stock‑water development, range restoration.]

AAA — Agricultural Adjustment Administration

[Upload and annotate AAA‑related newspaper articles here — crop programs, livestock adjustments, agricultural policy.]

Other Programs

[Upload and annotate articles related to other New Deal programs here — NYA, PWA, RA, FSA, etc.]

Custer County Government Records

Commissioner Minutes

[Link to or describe digitized commissioner minutes related to New Deal projects — road contracts, WPA approvals, REA agreements, school improvements, rural water systems.]

Grantor / Grantee Records

[Link to or describe land and property records relevant to New Deal–era changes — RA land purchases, homestead abandonment, ranch consolidation.]

Custer County New Deal Documents

[Repository for letters, reports, blueprints, contracts, and other primary documents related to New Deal activity in Custer County — CCC camp materials, SCS plans, WPA project sheets, REA cooperative records.]

SEE BELOW FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL IDENTITY AND HISTORY OF THE COUNTY

Custer County lies within a region shaped for thousands of years by the deep histories, homelands, and cultural geographies of many Tribal Nations, including the Tsétsêhéstâhese (Northern Cheyenne), Apsáalooke (Crow), and Lakȟóta and Dakota (Sioux) peoples, as well as the Arikara, Mandan, Hidatsa, and other Plains nations whose seasonal rounds, trade networks, hunting territories, and travel corridors extended across the Yellowstone River basin, the Tongue River country, the Powder River Basin, and the pine‑covered uplands of the Custer National Forest. These lands remain part of their living cultural landscapes — places of story, movement, gathering, ceremony, and stewardship — and this project honors their enduring presence, sovereignty, and relationships with the waters, soils, plants, and animal nations of eastern Montana.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE COUNTY

Geographic Setting

Custer County, Montana**

Custer County occupies a vast expanse of southeastern Montana, covering 3,793 square miles of mixed‑grass prairie, badlands, river breaks, and rolling uplands shaped by the Yellowstone River, the Tongue River, and their tributary systems. Its size, topography, and semi‑arid climate define nearly every aspect of its land use, settlement patterns, and cultural identity. Elevations range from roughly 2,300 feet along the Yellowstone River near Miles City to over 3,800 feet on the upland divides and badland plateaus that frame the county’s interior. With a population density of only a few people per square mile, Custer County remains one of the most sparsely settled regions in eastern Montana — a landscape of long distances, open horizons, and deeply layered histories of ranching, homesteading, transportation, and federal land management.

Land Ownership & Distribution

Land ownership in Custer County reflects the ecological diversity of the Yellowstone–Tongue River basin. Public lands are concentrated in the badlands, breaks, and upland grazing districts, while private holdings dominate the river valleys, hay meadows, and long‑established ranch units.

Federal Lands (approx. 35–40%)

Federal lands form a significant portion of the county’s land base, especially in the uplands and remote grazing districts.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

BLM lands are the dominant federal presence in Custer County, occupying large tracts of:

sagebrush steppe
badland breaks
upland grazing units
prairie ridges and isolated buttes

These lands support cattle and sheep grazing, hunting, and access to remote drainages. Several Wilderness Study Areas and Areas of Critical Environmental Concern (ACECs) preserve rugged badland terrain, wildlife habitat, and scenic breaks along the Tongue River and Pumpkin Creek.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS) – Custer National Forest (Sioux District)

Although smaller in acreage than BLM holdings, USFS lands form important blocks of:

ponderosa pine forest
upland ridges
timbered breaks
historic CCC project areas

These tracts include portions of the Ashland Ranger District, shared with neighboring counties, and contain a long legacy of grazing, timber work, fire management, and New Deal–era conservation infrastructure.

Other Federal Lands

Additional federal holdings include:

Bureau of Reclamation parcels associated with small water projects
scattered federal mineral estates
administrative sites and transportation easements

State Lands (DNRC, FWP)

State trust lands and Department of Natural Resources and Conservation (DNRC) parcels are scattered across the county, often intermingled with private ranch holdings. These tracts support:

grazing leases
limited timber harvest
public access for hunting and recreation

Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (FWP) manages several state fishing access sites along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, anchoring recreation and riparian access.

Private Lands

Private ownership dominates the river valleys, hay meadows, and long‑established ranch units along:

the Yellowstone River
the Tongue River
Pumpkin Creek
Mizpah Creek
Sunday Creek

These lands form the agricultural heart of the county, supporting irrigated hay, dryland grain, and large cow‑calf operations. Homestead‑era patents, later consolidations, and modern ranch expansions have shaped the present‑day pattern of ownership.

Access & Landlocked Parcels

Despite the large amount of public land, access is uneven. In some areas, BLM and USFS parcels are directly served by county roads and two‑track trails. In other areas — especially where public lands are surrounded by private ranches — tracts are effectively landlocked. This patchwork shapes:

hunting access
recreation patterns
grazing leases
debates over easements, road management, and land exchanges

Physiographic Regions

Custer County’s landscape is defined by a series of distinct geographic zones, each with its own ecological and cultural identity.

Yellowstone River Valley

The Yellowstone River forms the county’s northern boundary and anchors:

irrigated hayfields
cottonwood bottoms
transportation corridors (railroad, interstate, highways)
the county seat of Miles City

This valley is the most densely settled part of the county and has long served as a regional hub for ranching, trade, and transportation.

Tongue River Valley

The Tongue River cuts through the southeastern portion of the county, creating:

fertile riparian corridors
long, narrow ranching districts
cottonwood and willow bottoms
access routes into the Ashland Ranger District

The valley has deep historical ties to Indigenous nations, early ranching, and federal land management.

Badlands & Breaks

Between the major river valleys lie extensive tracts of:

eroded badlands
clay and sandstone breaks
isolated buttes
sagebrush and juniper uplands

These areas are sparsely settled and form the core of BLM grazing districts and wildlife habitat.

Upland Prairies & Rolling Benches

The central and southern portions of the county contain:

rolling prairie benches
mixed‑grass rangelands
broad upland divides between major drainages

These landscapes support large ranch units and contain many of the county’s stock‑water reservoirs, dugouts, and SCS/CCC conservation structures.

Forest & Timbered Uplands

USFS lands in the Ashland Ranger District include:

ponderosa pine forests
timbered ridges
fire‑management corridors
CCC‑built roads, trails, and lookouts

These uplands form a distinct ecological zone tied to both ranching and federal conservation history.

Major Valleys & Settlement Patterns

Settlement in Custer County is sparse and linear, following rivers, creeks, and transportation routes rather than forming dense urban centers.

Miles City

Anchors the Yellowstone Valley and serves as:

the county seat
a regional livestock and trade center
a transportation hub

Rural Districts

Smaller clusters of ranch headquarters, schools, and community centers are found along:

Tongue River
Pumpkin Creek
Mizpah Creek
Sunday Creek
Moon Creek

These settlements reflect the county’s ranching heritage and the long distances between homesteads.

Landscape Identity

Custer County’s geography is defined by:

vast open prairies
rugged badlands
cottonwood river bottoms
timbered uplands
long distances between communities
a deep history of ranching, Indigenous presence, and federal land management

Its land distribution — a mosaic of BLM, USFS, state trust lands, and private ranchlands — shapes how people work, travel, recreate, and imagine the county today.

FEDERAL ENTITIES IN CUSTER COUNTY (BY NAME)

Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

Custer County contains extensive BLM rangelands across the Tongue River, Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah, and Powder River regions.

Administering Office:

BLM Miles City Field Office (Miles City, MT) Administers all BLM lands in Custer County, including grazing allotments, recreation sites, and cultural resources.

Named BLM Units in Custer County:

Pumpkin Creek Recreation Area
Strawberry Hill Recreation Area
Seven Sisters Recreation Area
Tongue River Breaks Backcountry Areas
BLM Grazing Allotments (numerous; legally defined but not individually named)

BLM Wilderness Study Areas (WSAs) in or near Custer County:

Tongue River Breaks WSA (adjacent, partially influencing county management)
Pumpkin Creek WSA (regional influence)

National Park Service (NPS)

NPS does not manage large land blocks in Custer County, but it maintains jurisdiction over National Register sites and historic trails.

Named NPS‑Recognized Resources:

Historic Fort Keogh Military Reservation (NRHP‑listed)
Miles City Historic District (NRHP‑listed)
Segments of the Bozeman Trail (documented historic corridor)

Administering Office:

NPS Intermountain Region (Denver, CO) Provides oversight for National Register documentation and historic trail coordination.

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS)

Custer County does not contain a full National Wildlife Refuge, but USFWS manages wetland easements and habitat programs.

Named USFWS Units in Custer County:

Miles City Wetland Management District (WMD) Oversees waterfowl production areas and conservation easements in the region.
USFWS Conservation Easements Scattered across the Tongue River and Yellowstone River corridors.

Administering Office:

USFWS Eastern Montana Refuge Complex (Lewistown, MT) Miles City WMD is part of this complex.

Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)

BOR has a meaningful presence due to early irrigation development.

Named BOR Projects Affecting Custer County:

Kinsey Irrigation Project (Yellowstone River)
Tongue River Diversion & Irrigation Structures
Yellowstone River Bank Stabilization Projects (BOR/USACE cooperative)

Administering Office:

BOR Montana Area Office (Billings, MT)

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

USACE maintains jurisdiction over the Yellowstone River system and flood‑control structures.

Named USACE Programs/Structures:

Yellowstone River Bank Stabilization & Navigation Project
Miles City Levee & Flood Control Structures
Yellowstone River Navigation Channel Maintenance

Administering Office:

USACE Omaha District (Missouri River Basin)

Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

NRCS is deeply embedded in Custer County’s agricultural landscape.

Named NRCS Entity:

NRCS Custer County Field Office (Miles City, MT) Provides soil conservation, grazing management, and watershed programs.

Farm Service Agency (FSA)

Named FSA Entity:

Custer County FSA Office (Miles City, MT) Administers federal farm programs, disaster assistance, and agricultural credit.

U.S. Forest Service (USFS)

Custer County includes part of the Custer National Forest – Ashland Ranger District, a major federal landholder.

Named USFS Units in Custer County:

Ashland Ranger District (Custer National Forest)
USFS Grazing Allotments
CCC‑era infrastructure (roads, fire lookouts, ranger stations)

Administering Office:

USFS Custer Gallatin National Forest (Billings/Bozeman, MT)

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)

USGS maintains hydrologic and geologic monitoring sites.

Named USGS Sites in Custer County:

USGS Yellowstone River Gaging Stations
USGS Tongue River Gaging Stations
USGS Mizpah Creek Monitoring Sites
Regional geologic mapping units (badlands, clinker formations)

STATE ENTITIES IN CUSTER COUNTY (BY NAME)

Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks (FWP)

Named FWP Units in Custer County:

Miles City Fish Hatchery (major state facility)
Tongue River Fishing Access Sites (multiple)
Yellowstone River Fishing Access Sites (multiple)
Strawberry Hill Recreation Area (FWP‑managed access)
Pumpkin Creek Access Sites

Administering Region:

FWP Region 7 – Miles City

Montana Department of Natural Resources & Conservation (DNRC)

Named DNRC Units:

Eastern Land Office (Miles City, MT) Administers all State Trust Lands in Custer County.
State Trust Lands (School Trust Sections) Scattered throughout the county; individually numbered, not named.

Montana Department of Transportation (MDT)

Named MDT District:

MDT Glendive District

Named MDT Corridors in Custer County:

Interstate 94
U.S. Highway 12
Montana Highway 59
Montana Highway 489
Historic Milwaukee Road & Northern Pacific alignments

Montana State Parks (FWP Division)

Custer County does not contain a full state park, but it includes state‑managed recreation and access sites.

Named State‑Managed Sites:

Strawberry Hill Recreation Area
Tongue River Fishing Access Sites
Yellowstone River Fishing Access Sites
Miles City Fish Hatchery Grounds

Montana Historical Society (MHS)

Named MHS Presence:

Miles City Historic District Documentation
Fort Keogh Historic District Documentation
MHS‑administered National Register Sites (multiple)
Bozeman Trail documentation and mapping

HISTORY OF THE COUNTY

HISTORY (Custer County)
Custer County lies within a landscape shaped for thousands of years by Indigenous travel, hunting, ceremony, and trade. Long before Euro‑American settlement, Tsétsêhéstâhese (Northern Cheyenne), Apsáalooke (Crow), Lakȟóta and Dakota (Sioux), and A’aninin and Assiniboine peoples moved seasonally through the Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys, the Mizpah and Pumpkin Creek drainages, and the rolling prairie and breaks that define southeastern Montana. These lands formed part of a vast cultural geography linking the Powder River Basin, the Black Hills, the Yellowstone Plateau, and the northern plains. Trails followed river bottoms and ridge lines; buffalo herds moved through in immense numbers; and kinship, diplomacy, and trade connected this region to communities far beyond present‑day county boundaries. The land that would become Custer County was never an empty frontier — it was a lived‑in homeland, mapped by generations of Indigenous knowledge, place names, and seasonal movement.

Archaeological Record
Custer County contains a rich archaeological landscape reflecting thousands of years of Indigenous presence. Documented site types include:
- Buffalo jumps and kill sites along the Tongue and Yellowstone River breaks
- Stone circles (tipi rings) across upland benches and river terraces
- Vision quest and ceremonial sites on buttes and high points
- Quarry and lithic scatter sites associated with toolmaking
- Rock art panels in sheltered breaks and coulees
- Historic Cheyenne and Lakota campsites along the Tongue River
- Military‑era sites associated with the 1876–1877 campaigns
Nearby major archaeological landscapes — including the Tongue River breaks, Powder River Basin, and Northern Cheyenne Reservation — further contextualize Custer County’s deep Indigenous history.

Indigenous Use Before Euro‑American Settlement
For millennia, the Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys served as seasonal homelands, hunting grounds, and travel corridors for Northern Cheyenne, Crow, Lakota, and other Plains nations. Key patterns included:
- Buffalo hunting on the open prairie and breaks
- Seasonal camps along the Tongue and Yellowstone Rivers
- Plant gathering (berries, roots, medicinal plants) in riparian zones
- Horse grazing on rich bottomlands
- Ceremonial use of high buttes and ridgelines
- Trade routes connecting the Powder River Basin to the Black Hills and Yellowstone Plateau
The Tongue River Valley, in particular, was a core homeland for Northern Cheyenne families, who maintained deep cultural ties to the region well into the 20th century.

Indigenous–Euro‑American Interactions
The early 1800s brought fur traders, trappers, and military expeditions into southeastern Montana. The Yellowstone River corridor became a route of exploration, trade, and conflict as Euro‑American presence increased.
By the 1820s–1840s:
- Fur companies operated along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- Cheyenne, Crow, and Lakota camps remained common across the region
- Trade goods, horses, and weapons reshaped intertribal dynamics
The mid‑1800s brought profound change:
- Buffalo herds collapsed under commercial hunting and military policy
- Fort Laramie Treaties (1851, 1868) redefined territorial boundaries
- Military campaigns (1860s–1870s) targeted Cheyenne and Lakota mobility
- Fort Keogh (1876) was established near present‑day Miles City, becoming a major military post
Despite these pressures, Northern Cheyenne and Lakota families continued to travel, hunt, and gather in the Tongue River and Yellowstone valleys well into the late 19th century, maintaining cultural ties even as reservation boundaries hardened.

Early Euro‑American Settlement
Euro‑American settlement arrived earlier in Custer County than in many eastern Montana counties due to the Yellowstone River corridor and the establishment of Fort Keogh.
By the 1880s–1890s:
- Large cattle outfits used the Tongue and Yellowstone valleys for seasonal grazing
- Sheep operations expanded across the uplands
- Miles City emerged as a commercial and transportation hub
- Railroads (Northern Pacific, later Milwaukee Road) anchored settlement patterns
- Small communities formed around post offices, schools, and rail sidings
The region’s economy blended ranching, freighting, military supply, and early agriculture.

Homesteading Era
The early 20th century brought a wave of homesteading that transformed the county.
Key drivers:
- Enlarged Homestead Act (1909)
- Stock Raising Homestead Act (1916)
- Aggressive railroad and land‑company promotion
This era produced:
- Hundreds of small dryland farms on the northern and western benches
- Irrigated farms in the Kinsey Project and along the Tongue River
- Dozens of one‑room school districts
- New communities such as Kinsey, Locate, Mizpah, and Moon Creek
But the semi‑arid climate proved unforgiving. Many homesteads failed during drought cycles, leaving a landscape of abandoned farms and re‑consolidated ranch holdings.

Formation of Custer County
Custer County was created in 1865 (territorial era) and reorganized multiple times as eastern Montana counties were carved out. By the early 20th century, it encompassed:
- The Yellowstone River Valley
- The Tongue River Valley
- Extensive prairie benches and badlands
- Large ranching districts
- Emerging irrigation projects
Miles City became the county seat and the region’s dominant commercial, medical, and transportation center.

The 1920s–1930s: Drought, Depression & Agricultural Crisis
By the late 1920s, Custer County faced mounting pressures:
- Severe drought cycles
- Grasshopper infestations
- Collapse of dryland wheat farming
- Ranch consolidation
- Out‑migration from failed homesteads
- Declining livestock prices
The Great Depression intensified these stresses, exposing the limits of early agricultural practices and the vulnerability of rural families.

New Deal Era Transformations
The New Deal reshaped Custer County’s landscapes and communities.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
CCC camps operated in the Ashland Ranger District and surrounding areas, building:
- roads and trails
- firebreaks
- erosion‑control structures
- timber management projects
- stock ponds and water developments
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
SCS technicians introduced:
- contour plowing
- reseeding of depleted rangelands
- stock water systems
- shelterbelts
- erosion‑control practices
Works Progress Administration (WPA)
WPA crews improved:
- schools
- public buildings
- roads and bridges
- Miles City civic infrastructure
Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)
BOR expanded irrigation capacity through:
- the Kinsey Project
- Tongue River diversions
- Yellowstone River stabilization
These programs left a permanent imprint on the county’s agricultural viability and rural settlement patterns.

A Layered Landscape
Today, Custer County’s history is visible in its layered landscapes:
- the Indigenous homelands of the Northern Cheyenne, Crow, Lakota, and other Plains nations
- the Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys shaped by millennia of travel and settlement
- the dryland farms and ranches of the prairie
- the badlands carved by Mizpah Creek, Pumpkin Creek, and the Tongue River
- the enduring imprint of New Deal conservation and infrastructure projects
- the railroad‑era towns and corridors that structured regional life
Custer County’s story is one of adaptation and resilience — of Native and non‑Native communities continually reshaping their relationship to land, water, and the demanding beauty of southeastern Montana.
Settlement Patterns Across Time – Custer County
Indigenous Settlement (Deep Time – 1880s)
Long before Euro‑American settlement, the region that would become Custer County lay within the homelands of the Tsétsêhéstâhese (Northern Cheyenne), Apsáalooke (Crow), Lakȟóta and Dakota (Sioux), and A’aninin and Assiniboine peoples. Seasonal movements followed the Yellowstone River, Tongue River, Mizpah Creek, Pumpkin Creek, and the rolling uplands between the Powder River Basin and the northern plains.
Indigenous families used this landscape for:
- buffalo hunting on the open prairie and breaks
- seasonal camps along the Tongue and Yellowstone Rivers
- plant gathering in riparian zones
- horse grazing on rich bottomlands
- ceremonial use of high buttes and ridgelines
- travel between the Powder River Basin, the Black Hills, and the Yellowstone Plateau
Trails along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, and across the upland benches, linked this region to a vast cultural geography. The land that would become Custer County was a deeply inhabited Indigenous homeland, mapped by generations of knowledge, place names, and seasonal movement.

Fur Trade & Early Contact Era (1800s–1860s)
Although the Missouri River corridor saw more concentrated fur trade activity, southeastern Montana was still part of a broad network of movement and exchange.
Key developments included:
- early fur trade activity along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- Crow, Cheyenne, and Lakota camps moving seasonally through the region
- increased intertribal conflict and shifting alliances as Euro‑American goods entered the plains
- military scouting expeditions traversing the Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys
This period marked the beginning of intensified outside interest in the region’s travel corridors and resources.

Military, Ranching & Early Settlement Era (1860s–1890s)
Custer County’s early Euro‑American settlement was shaped profoundly by the establishment of Fort Keogh (1876) near present‑day Miles City. The fort became a major military post during the Northern Plains campaigns and a supply center for the region.
During this era:
- large cattle outfits used the Tongue and Yellowstone valleys for seasonal grazing
- sheep operations expanded across the uplands
- freighting routes connected Miles City to the Black Hills and Powder River Basin
- early ranches clustered along rivers and perennial creeks
- Miles City emerged as a commercial hub serving the military, ranchers, and freighters
These activities established some of the earliest Euro‑American settlement patterns in the county.

Railroad‑Driven Settlement (1881–1910)
Custer County was shaped directly by the arrival of the Northern Pacific Railroad (1881) and later the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul (1908–1909) through Miles City.
Railroads created:
- a major livestock shipping center in Miles City
- new communities around sidings and depots (Locate, Hathaway, Kinsey)
- freight corridors supplying ranches and homesteads
- a regional commercial and medical hub that served southeastern Montana
Unlike Carter County, Custer County did have railroads — and they became the backbone of its settlement geography.

Irrigation & Agricultural Expansion (1880s–1930s)
Agricultural development in Custer County centered on:
- irrigated farming along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- dryland wheat and barley on the northern and western benches
- cattle and sheep ranching across the uplands and creek valleys
Key developments included:
- early ditch systems along the Tongue River
- the Kinsey Irrigation Project (Bureau of Reclamation)
- small reservoirs, stock ponds, and diversion structures
- hay and grain production supporting ranching and livestock shipping
Irrigation shaped settlement patterns along the river bottoms, while dryland farming expanded — and often failed — on the uplands.

Homestead Era Settlement (1900–1920)
The homestead boom transformed Custer County more dramatically than any previous era.
Drivers included:
- Enlarged Homestead Act (1909)
- Stock Raising Homestead Act (1916)
- aggressive railroad and land‑company promotion
- improved wagon roads and access to railheads
This period saw:
- rapid population growth across the prairie benches
- dozens of rural school districts
- new post offices, community halls, and small service centers
- widespread dryland farming attempts — many short‑lived
- settlement in areas such as Kinsey, Locate, Mizpah, Moon Creek, and Volborg
The boom was followed by drought, crop failures, and widespread abandonment in the 1920s.

Miles City
Miles City emerged as the region’s dominant community because of:
- its location at the confluence of the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- the presence of Fort Keogh
- its role as a railroad and livestock shipping center
- early ranching, freighting, and commercial activity
- the establishment of schools, hospitals, and civic institutions
- its position as a service center for ranchers and homesteaders
Miles City became the county seat and the commercial heart of southeastern Montana.

Why the Communities Are Where They Are
Custer County’s settlement geography reflects:
- water availability along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
- irrigation potential in the Kinsey and Tongue River districts
- rangeland quality across the prairie and breaks
- railroad corridors that anchored towns and shipping points
- transportation routes linking ranches to Miles City
- community institutions (schools, churches, stores) that anchored rural neighborhoods
- New Deal projects that improved roads, built stock reservoirs, and stabilized eroding landscapes
Communities formed where water, transportation, and social networks converged — and where families could sustain ranching, irrigated agriculture, and dryland farming in a challenging but resilient landscape.

GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTY

Geology of Custer County
Custer County sits at the intersection of several major geologic provinces: the northern Great Plains, the Yellowstone River and Tongue River breaks, the Powder River Basin margin, and the Ponderosa‑pine uplands of the Custer National Forest’s Ashland District. This position gives Custer County one of the most varied sedimentary landscapes in eastern Montana, where Cretaceous marine shales, Paleocene river and floodplain deposits, Eocene sandstones and clinker beds, and Quaternary alluvium appear within short distances of one another. The result is a terrain shaped by inland seas, coal‑forming swamps, river systems, wildfire‑altered sediments, and the long history of erosion carving through layered sedimentary formations.

Cretaceous Marine Shales: The Foundation of the Breaks
Across much of Custer County, the landscape is dominated by Cretaceous marine shales, especially the Pierre Shale and related formations deposited 70–80 million years ago when the Western Interior Seaway covered the region. These dark, clay‑rich shales weather into:
- rolling gumbo soils
- steep badland slopes
- deeply incised drainages along Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the Tongue River
- bentonite‑rich exposures that swell when wet and crack when dry
Interbedded sandstone lenses and volcanic ash layers record shifting shorelines, storm deposits, and episodic ash falls. Bentonite — derived from altered volcanic ash — is widespread and plays a major role in soil behavior, road conditions, and erosion patterns.

Paleocene Fort Union Formation: Coal, Clinker, and River Plains
The Fort Union Formation, deposited 56–65 million years ago, forms the structural backbone of much of Custer County’s uplands. These rocks represent ancient river floodplains, swamps, and lowland forests that once covered the northern plains. They include:
- thick beds of sandstone and siltstone
- clay and mudstone layers
- extensive lignite coal seams
- fossil plant material and petrified wood
Where coal seams burned naturally or through lightning‑ignited wildfires, they baked the surrounding sediments into clinker (also called scoria) — the red, orange, and purple rock that caps many ridges and buttes across the county. These resistant clinker beds form:
- high ridgelines
- mesas and butte tops
- erosion‑resistant caps that shape the county’s skyline
Clinker is one of the most distinctive geologic signatures of southeastern Montana.

Eocene Sandstones & Upland Ridges
In the southeastern portion of the county and in the Ashland Ranger District, younger Eocene sandstones and siltstones appear in the uplands. These units weather into:
- rounded ridges
- pine‑covered slopes
- steep breaks along the Tongue River
These rocks preserve evidence of ancient river systems and warm‑climate soils that formed long after the retreat of the inland sea.

Quaternary Alluvium: River Valleys & Terraces
The Yellowstone River and Tongue River valleys are among the county’s most significant Quaternary landforms. These rivers cut through Cretaceous and Paleocene bedrock, creating broad valleys bordered by terraces composed of:
- alluvium
- gravel
- sand
- silt
These terraces record repeated episodes of floodplain migration, climate shifts, and changes in sediment load over thousands of years. Alluvial soils support:
- irrigated hayfields
- riparian pastures
- cottonwood galleries
Buried soils, fossil remains, and gravel sequences provide evidence of late Pleistocene and early Holocene environments.

Wind‑Blown Loess & Upland Soils
Wind‑blown loess accumulated on upland surfaces during and after glacial periods, contributing to the fine‑textured soils that support dryland grazing across the prairie benches. These loess deposits influence:
- soil fertility
- erosion patterns
- vegetation communities
Although continental ice never reached Custer County, glacial meltwater from the north affected regional base levels and sedimentation patterns.

Extractive Resources & Their History
Custer County’s extractive resource history reflects its sedimentary geology and long tradition of ranching, mining, and construction.

Coal
- Lignite coal seams occur throughout the Fort Union Formation, especially in the Tongue River and Pumpkin Creek districts.
- Small‑scale coal mining supported ranches, homesteads, and towns from the late 1800s through the mid‑20th century.
- Coal was used for heating, blacksmithing, and local commercial operations.
- Burned coal seams created extensive clinker deposits that shape modern topography.
Clay & Bentonite
- Bentonite deposits, derived from altered volcanic ash, are widespread in the Pierre Shale and Fort Union units.
- Historically mined for drilling mud, sealants, and industrial uses.
- Clay deposits supported local brickmaking and construction materials during the homestead era.
Sand & Gravel
- Extensive Quaternary gravel deposits along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers provide essential materials for:
  - road building
  - ranch infrastructure
  - construction
- Many gravel pits originated as WPA or county projects during the 1930s.
Timber
While not a mineral resource, timber extraction in the Ashland Ranger District has long been tied to the region’s geology. Ponderosa pine stands supported:
- sawmills
- CCC timber stand improvement projects
- fire‑management work
- local construction
Oil & Gas Exploration
- Custer County saw periodic oil and gas exploration in the mid‑20th century.
- Exploration targeted structural traps and sandstone reservoirs in the Fort Union and Wasatch formations.
- While no major fields were developed, exploration left a legacy of seismic lines, test wells, and geologic mapping.
Geologic Transformation Through Time
Erosion remains the dominant geologic force shaping Custer County today.
- Badlands expand as soft shales weather into hoodoos, gullies, and steep clay slopes.
- Clinker‑capped ridges resist erosion, creating dramatic relief.
- Prairie drainages deepen during flash‑flood events.
- Stock reservoirs alter sedimentation patterns across grazing districts.
- River meanders continue to reshape the Yellowstone and Tongue valleys.
Together, the rocks and landforms of Custer County tell a story of inland seas, coal‑forming swamps, river systems, wildfire‑altered sediments, and persistent erosion. They reveal a landscape shaped by both slow geologic processes and sudden climatic events, where Paleocene floodplains rise above Cretaceous marine shales and Quaternary gravels. From the clinker‑capped ridges of the Tongue River breaks to the cottonwood bottoms of the Yellowstone, the county’s geology underpins its ecology, hydrology, land use, and cultural history — forming the physical framework within which generations of Indigenous peoples, ranchers, homesteaders, and federal agencies have lived and worked.

BIOLOGY OF THE COUNTY

Biology of Custer County

Custer County’s biological landscape reflects the meeting of mixed‑grass prairie, badlands and breaks, riparian corridors, and the ponderosa‑pine uplands of the Tongue River and Custer National Forest. For the Tsétsêhéstâhese (Northern Cheyenne), Apsáalooke (Crow), and Lakȟóta/Dakota (Sioux) peoples — whose homelands include the Yellowstone River basin, the Tongue River country, and the forested uplands of southeastern Montana — these ecosystems are not abstract ecological units but living relatives, each with roles, responsibilities, and relationships within a shared world. Millennia of Indigenous stewardship shaped the grasslands, river bottoms, wooded breaks, and upland forests long before the arrival of ranchers, homesteaders, and federal agencies. Fire, grazing, beaver activity, and cultural practices created a mosaic of habitats that supported bison, elk, pronghorn, wolves, bears, migratory birds, and a rich diversity of plants.

Large Mammals & Historical Ecology

Large mammals once dominated the prairies, river valleys, and uplands of what is now Custer County. Bison, the keystone species of the northern Plains, shaped grassland structure through grazing, wallowing, and migration. Their movements created habitat mosaics that supported birds, small mammals, and plant communities; their grazing maintained open grasslands; and their carcasses fed wolves, bears, eagles, and scavengers. For Indigenous nations, bison were central to food, clothing, shelter, ceremony, and identity — a biological and cultural foundation that structured seasonal rounds and social life. Their removal in the late 19th century was both an ecological collapse and a cultural rupture.

Elk, now strongly associated with mountain habitats, historically ranged widely across the Tongue River Valley, the Yellowstone River bottomlands, and the pine‑covered breaks. Early accounts describe elk herds in open grasslands, cottonwood bottoms, and coulees, linking the uplands to the prairie through seasonal movements.

Grizzly bears once roamed the plains and river valleys of eastern Montana, feeding on bison carcasses, berries, roots, and riparian vegetation. Their presence across the Yellowstone–Tongue region is well documented in 19th‑century journals, long before the species retreated to higher elevations farther west.

Today, mule deer, pronghorn, white‑tailed deer, coyotes, and occasional elk dominate the county’s large mammal communities. Black bears and mountain lions persist in the forested uplands of the Ashland Ranger District, while swift fox and badgers inhabit the prairie and badland breaks.

Bird Life & Habitat Diversity

Bird life reflects Custer County’s ecological diversity. Raptors — golden eagles, ferruginous hawks, red‑tailed hawks, northern harriers, and prairie falcons — hunt across sagebrush benches, badlands, and open prairie. The cliffs and outcrops of the Tongue River breaks provide nesting habitat for falcons, owls, and ravens. Riparian corridors along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers support:

great horned owls
belted kingfishers
woodpeckers
migratory songbirds
waterfowl

Wetlands, stock reservoirs, and ephemeral prairie ponds attract:

sandhill cranes
ducks and geese
shorebirds
amphibians

These water features — many expanded or constructed during the New Deal era — now form critical habitat in an otherwise semi‑arid landscape.

Upland habitats support greater sage‑grouse, whose leks mark ancient breeding grounds on the county’s sagebrush benches. These leks remain culturally and ecologically significant, reflecting long‑term continuity in habitat use.

Plant Communities & Indigenous Knowledge

Plant communities form the foundation of Custer County’s biological richness. The prairie is dominated by:

western wheatgrass
green needlegrass
blue grama
needle‑and‑thread
big sagebrush

Riparian zones support:

cottonwood
willow
chokecherry
rose
buffaloberry

In the uplands, ponderosa pine, juniper, aspen, and mixed‑grass meadows create layered habitats shaped by fire, snowpack, and elevation.

For Indigenous peoples, plants are teachers, medicines, and relatives. Sage, sweetgrass, chokecherry, serviceberry, timpsila (prairie turnip), and bitterroot hold ceremonial, nutritional, and ecological significance. Gathering sites along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, and in the pine‑covered uplands, remain important cultural landscapes where traditional ecological knowledge continues to guide stewardship.

Ecological Change After Contact

The biological history of Custer County was profoundly altered by the Columbian Exchange, which introduced new species, pathogens, and ecological pressures. Diseases such as smallpox and influenza devastated Indigenous populations, causing demographic collapse and cultural disruption across the northern Plains. Horses transformed mobility, hunting, trade, and warfare, expanding the geographic range of seasonal rounds and reshaping the cultural landscape.

Homesteaders, ranchers, and federal agencies introduced additional biological changes:

cattle and sheep altered grazing patterns and soil structure
smooth brome, crested wheatgrass, and Kentucky bluegrass spread across pastures
predator control programs reduced wolf, grizzly, and cougar populations
fire suppression allowed juniper and pine to expand into former grasslands
stock reservoirs created new wetlands while altering natural hydrology
irrigation along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers reshaped riparian vegetation

Mining and early coal extraction disturbed vegetation and soils in localized areas around historic pits and clinker deposits.

Upland Forests & Badlands Ecology

The Ashland Ranger District of the Custer National Forest adds a unique biological dimension to Custer County. Its rugged topography supports a blend of:

ponderosa pine forests
mountain meadows
sagebrush parks
riparian corridors

Mule deer, elk, black bears, mountain lions, and wild turkeys move through the canyons and ridges, while high‑elevation meadows support specialized plant communities shaped by snowpack, fire, and geology. Springs, seeps, and perennial streams create microhabitats that support amphibians, pollinators, and native grasses.

The badlands of Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the Tongue River breaks support a different suite of species: ferruginous hawks, burrowing owls, pronghorn, swift fox, and reptiles adapted to clay soils, sparse vegetation, and extreme temperature swings.

A Living, Layered Biological Landscape

Today, Custer County’s biological landscape reflects the convergence of prairie, badlands, riparian valleys, and upland forests. The Yellowstone and Tongue River corridors remain ecological hotspots, supporting cottonwood forests, beaver, amphibians, and fish species adapted to variable flows. The prairie benches support pronghorn, mule deer, coyotes, raptors, and diverse grassland birds and pollinators. The pine‑covered uplands host black bears, elk, mountain lions, and high‑elevation plant communities shaped by snowpack and fire.

Across this landscape, biology is inseparable from culture, history, and stewardship. The plants, animals, and ecological processes of Custer County reflect deep Indigenous relationships, colonial disruptions, and ongoing efforts to sustain the land’s living systems. From cottonwood galleries to sagebrush benches, from badland breaks to forested uplands, the county’s biological richness remains central to its identity and to the communities who call it home.

HYDROLOGY OF THE COUNTY

Hydrology of Custer County

Custer County sits at the meeting point of two distinct hydrologic worlds: the semi‑arid mixed‑grass prairie and badlands of the northern Great Plains, and the forest‑fed upland watersheds of the Tongue River breaks and the Custer National Forest. Unlike mountain‑anchored counties with large perennial rivers, Custer County’s hydrology is a hybrid system shaped by:

snowmelt from isolated upland ranges
highly variable prairie runoff
ephemeral and intermittent streams
stock reservoirs and dugouts
groundwater stored in alluvial and bedrock aquifers
the long‑term legacy of New Deal watershed engineering

Because no major dam or trans‑basin diversion system anchors the county, Custer County’s water supply is defined by local precipitation, upland snowpack, and the hydrologic behavior of the Yellowstone River, the Tongue River, and their tributaries. Water here is both scarce and foundational — a resource shaped by climate, geology, ranching practices, and nearly a century of conservation work.

MAIN RIVERS, CREEKS, AND UPLAND SOURCES

Yellowstone River

The Yellowstone River forms Custer County’s northern boundary and is the county’s largest and most stable watercourse. Rising in the Absaroka and Beartooth Mountains far to the west, it flows eastward through Miles City, carving a broad valley through Cretaceous shales and Quaternary gravels.

Historically, the river:

meandered across a wide floodplain
created cottonwood galleries and willow thickets
supported beaver, amphibians, and riparian wildlife
flooded periodically, reshaping channels and terraces

Today, the Yellowstone remains unregulated in this region, with flows driven by:

mountain snowmelt
intense summer thunderstorms
long drought cycles
sediment‑rich prairie runoff

Its variability defines the ecology, agriculture, and settlement patterns of northern Custer County.

Tongue River

The Tongue River flows northward through the southeastern portion of the county, forming one of its most important hydrologic corridors. Its hydrology reflects:

snowpack in the Bighorn Mountains (Wyoming)
spring runoff pulses
summer thunderstorms and flash‑flood events
irrigation withdrawals and stock‑water use

The Tongue River supports cottonwood forests, hayfields, and riparian pastures, forming a productive agricultural and ranching corridor.

Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek & Sunday Creek

These major prairie drainages define much of the county’s interior hydrology. Their flows are highly variable and shaped by:

snowmelt from upland benches
convective summer storms
long drought cycles
sediment‑rich runoff from badlands and shale slopes

These creeks support ranching, stock reservoirs, and riparian vegetation across central and southern Custer County.

Upland Watersheds (Custer National Forest – Ashland District)

The forested uplands of the Ashland Ranger District form one of the county’s most important hydrologic sources. Their higher elevations and ponderosa‑pine cover support:

perennial springs
seeps and wet meadows
intermittent creeks
high‑elevation snow retention

These upland watersheds feed tributaries that flow toward the Tongue River and Pumpkin Creek, sustaining wildlife, ranching, and Forest Service management areas.

HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES & LANDSCAPE INTERACTIONS

Snowpack‑Driven Hydrology

Custer County’s snowpack is localized but essential. The pine‑covered uplands accumulate winter snow that releases through:

spring melt pulses
early summer baseflows
late‑season spring‑fed contributions

Snowpack variability directly influences:

stock‑water availability
riparian health
reservoir recharge
drought resilience

Ephemeral & Intermittent Streams

Most of Custer County’s streams are ephemeral or intermittent, flowing only during:

spring snowmelt
major rain events
short‑duration storm runoff

These streams carve badland gullies, transport sediment, and recharge alluvial aquifers.

Stock Reservoirs & Dugouts

One of the most defining hydrologic features of Custer County is the hundreds of stock reservoirs built during the New Deal era and expanded through later conservation programs.

These reservoirs:

store runoff from small drainages
support livestock and wildlife
create wetlands and amphibian habitat
moderate grazing pressure across the prairie

They remain one of the most enduring hydrologic legacies of the 1930s.

Groundwater & Alluvial Aquifers

Groundwater in Custer County is stored in:

alluvial aquifers along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
fractured sandstones in the Fort Union Formation
perched aquifers in upland basins

These aquifers:

supply domestic and ranch wells
support riparian vegetation
buffer drought impacts
interact with reservoir recharge

Groundwater–surface water interactions are especially pronounced in the Tongue River and Yellowstone valleys.

Flooding & Channel Dynamics

The Yellowstone, Tongue, and their tributaries exhibit highly dynamic channel behavior, including:

flash flooding
rapid incision
sediment‑rich flows
shifting meanders
badland gully expansion

These processes shape riparian vegetation, cottonwood recruitment, and erosion patterns across the county.

Prairie Hydrology & Climate Variability

Custer County’s hydrology is strongly influenced by:

multi‑year drought cycles
intense summer thunderstorms
high evaporation rates
limited perennial flow

This creates a landscape where water is both scarce and transformative, shaping settlement, ranching, and wildlife distribution.

HYDROLOGY AS CULTURAL & ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

Water in Custer County is inseparable from:

Indigenous travel routes, campsites, and gathering areas
homestead‑era dryland farming and early irrigation attempts
New Deal watershed engineering and stock‑water development
modern ranching systems and grazing rotations
Forest Service management in the Ashland Ranger District

The Yellowstone and Tongue River corridors remain the county’s ecological and cultural heart, shaped by snowpack, storm events, and nearly a century of conservation work. The upland forests anchor the county’s hydrological identity, feeding the creeks, springs, and reservoirs that sustain communities, wildlife, and working landscapes.

New Deal Legacy: Infrastructure Still in Use Today (Custer County)

Many of the watershed, rangeland, and stock‑water systems in Custer County were built or expanded during the New Deal era through:

SCS engineering in the Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and Tongue River drainages
WPA road, culvert, and erosion‑control projects across the prairie and badlands
CCC range improvements, spring developments, timber work, and road building in the Ashland Ranger District
RA submarginal land purchases that consolidated failed homesteads into grazing units and watershed protection areas

These systems remain essential to Custer County’s ranching and watershed stability — yet most are now approaching or exceeding 90 years of continuous use.

Their age contributes to:

sedimentation in stock reservoirs and dugouts
erosion and gully expansion around aging SCS check dams
structural failures in WPA‑era culverts and prairie road crossings
reduced water‑holding capacity in 1930s reservoirs
maintenance backlogs for county roads and Forest Service routes

Understanding this New Deal infrastructure — how it was built, why it was placed where it is, and how it has aged — is essential to understanding Custer County’s current water and land‑management challenges.

Recreation and River Use (Custer County)

Recreation in Custer County is inseparable from water — whether flowing through the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers, emerging from upland springs, or stored in New Deal–era stock reservoirs. Every water body, from the smallest prairie dugout to the cottonwood‑lined river corridor, shapes how people move through and experience the landscape.

Yellowstone River Recreation

The Yellowstone River is the county’s primary recreational artery, supporting:

fishing (catfish, sauger, pike, trout in cooler seasons)
waterfowl and upland bird hunting
riverside camping
birdwatching along cottonwood galleries

Its unregulated flows create a river experience defined by variability, sediment, and shifting channels.

Tongue River Recreation

The Tongue River supports:

warm‑water fishing
riparian wildlife viewing
hunting access
cottonwood‑bottom camping

Its valley remains a shared landscape of ranching, wildlife, and recreation.

Stock Reservoirs, Dugouts & Prairie Wetlands

Custer County contains hundreds of small reservoirs, many built or expanded during the New Deal era. These water bodies support:

waterfowl hunting
shorebird habitat
amphibian breeding sites
occasional warm‑water fishing
dispersed camping and informal recreation

These small water bodies form a hidden but ecologically vital recreation network across the ranching landscape.

Upland Recreation: Ashland Ranger District

The forested uplands support:

mule deer, elk, and turkey hunting
hiking, horseback riding, and dispersed camping
wildlife viewing in meadows and ridgelines
winter recreation in higher elevations

CCC‑era roads, firebreaks, and trail systems remain part of the modern recreation network.

Badlands Recreation

The badlands of Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the Tongue River breaks offer:

hiking among hoodoos and clay formations
photography of erosional landscapes
birding for ferruginous hawks, burrowing owls, and prairie falcons
hunting for pronghorn and mule deer

These areas provide solitude, scenic vistas, and access to some of the county’s most distinctive geologic and ecological features.

Recreation as Cultural Landscape

Across Custer County, recreation is inseparable from:

Indigenous relationships to the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers
homestead‑era settlement patterns and early ranching routes
New Deal conservation infrastructure
modern grazing systems and watershed management
wildlife migration corridors and seasonal habitat

The Yellowstone and Tongue River corridors remain the county’s recreational and ecological heart, shaped by water, soil, and long‑established communities. The upland forests provide access, wildlife habitat, and cultural continuity. Together, these landscapes form a recreation system that is both deeply rooted in the county’s past and continually reshaped by ecological change.

CLIMATE OF THE COUNTY

Climate of Custer County

Custer County’s climate reflects the meeting of three distinct ecological worlds: the semi‑arid mixed‑grass prairie, the badlands and breaks of the Yellowstone and Tongue River drainages, and the upland forest climates of the Custer National Forest’s Ashland Ranger District. Elevations range from roughly 2,300 feet along the Yellowstone River to more than 4,000 feet on the pine‑covered ridges of the Tongue River breaks. These gradients create sharp contrasts in temperature, precipitation, wind, and seasonality, shaping everything from watershed behavior and grazing patterns to wildlife distribution, plant communities, and the cultural rhythms of the Indigenous nations whose homelands encompass eastern Montana.

The Prairie & Badlands: Semi‑Arid Continental Climate

The Yellowstone and Tongue River valleys, along with the surrounding prairie and badlands, experience a classic semi‑arid continental climate defined by hot, dry summers and cold winters punctuated by dramatic temperature swings. Annual precipitation across the prairie averages 11 to 15 inches, with most moisture arriving between April and July.

Spring

Spring is the wettest season, when low‑pressure systems can draw moisture from the Pacific or the Gulf of Mexico, producing widespread rains that:

recharge soils
fill stock reservoirs
drive early‑season flows in Pumpkin Creek, Mizpah Creek, and the Tongue River
support cottonwood and willow regeneration

Summer

Summer brings long stretches of heat, with temperatures frequently exceeding 90°F. Afternoon thunderstorms — often fast‑moving and intense — deliver:

hail
high winds
localized downpours
flash flooding in badland drainages

These storms recharge ephemeral wetlands, influence grazing rotations, and shape the timing of hay harvests along the Yellowstone and Tongue Rivers.

Winter

Winters are highly variable. Arctic air masses can plunge temperatures well below zero for extended periods, only to be followed days later by warm Pacific systems that melt snow, create midwinter runoff, and expose grass for livestock and wildlife. Snow cover is inconsistent, and chinook‑like warm spells can rapidly shift conditions across the prairie.

Mountain & Upland Climates: Ashland Ranger District

Higher elevations in the Ashland Ranger District tell a different climatic story. These uplands rise abruptly from the prairie, capturing moisture from passing storm systems and accumulating significant winter snowpack in sheltered basins, forested slopes, and high meadows. Annual precipitation in these uplands ranges from 15 to 20 inches, much of it as snow that lingers into late spring.

Snowpack in the uplands functions as the county’s natural reservoir, releasing cold water gradually through spring and early summer. This slow melt sustains:

flows in Tongue River tributaries
riparian wetlands and beaver pond systems
cottonwood and willow regeneration
groundwater recharge in alluvial fans and valley bottoms
cold‑water habitat for amphibians and riparian species

These upland climates also shape wildlife distribution:

Pronghorn and sage‑grouse occupy the warm, dry benches and sagebrush flats.
Mule deer and elk move between foothills and forested uplands.
Black bears, mountain lions, and high‑elevation plant communities depend on cooler, wetter climates in the pine‑covered ridges.
Waterfowl and shorebirds rely on wetlands fed by spring rains and stock‑reservoir recharge.

Wind as a Defining Climatic Force

Wind is one of the most defining climatic forces in Custer County. Persistent westerlies and strong convective winds:

accelerate evaporation
shape snowdrifts and winter grazing conditions
influence fire behavior in the Ashland Ranger District
drive soil erosion on exposed benches
affect calving, lambing, and early‑season ranch work

Windstorms associated with summer thunderstorms can produce damaging gusts, dust plumes, and rapid temperature shifts.

Climate & Cultural Rhythms

For Indigenous nations, ranching families, and rural communities, climate is inseparable from cultural and economic life. Seasonal rhythms shape:

calving, lambing, and branding
haying and grazing rotations
wildlife migrations and hunting seasons
plant gathering and ceremonial practices
watershed behavior and stock‑water availability

The Yellowstone and Tongue River corridors remain the county’s climatic and ecological heart, shaped by snowpack, storm events, and long drought cycles. The pine‑covered uplands anchor the county’s climatic identity, feeding the creeks, springs, and reservoirs that sustain communities, wildlife, and working landscapes.

Across Custer County, climate is not simply a backdrop — it is a living force, shaping land use, cultural continuity, and ecological resilience in a region defined by extremes, variability, and the enduring interplay of prairie, badlands, and upland forest.

CUSTER COUNTY

CUSTER COUNTY

SEE BELOW FOR DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COUNTY DURING NEW DEAL ERA

FSA PHOTOS OF CUSTER COUNTY

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE & ECOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATION (Custer County)

NEW DEAL TRANSFORMATIONS TO THE LANDSCAPE (Custer County)

Resettlement Administration (RA) & Submarginal Lands Program

Farm Security Administration (FSA)

1. Rehabilitation & Farm Stabilization

2. Photography & Documentation

Soil Conservation Service (SCS)

Rural Electrification Administration (REA)

Works Progress Administration (WPA) & Public Works Administration (PWA)

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

STOCK WATER DEVELOPMENT & WATERSHED TRANSFORMATION (New Deal Foundations)

New Deal Contributions

Ecological Impact

Demographic Conditions Entering the 1930s (Custer County)

Population Size & Distribution

Urban–Rural Split

Miles City: A Regional Hub of Railroads, Livestock & Trade

Ethnic & Cultural Composition

Demographic Characteristics of Miles City

Rural Custer County: Ranching Families & Dryland Wheat Communities

Key Rural Settlement Areas

Characteristics of Rural Demographics

Indigenous Presence & Historical Displacement

Age Structure & Household Composition

Miles City

Rural Areas

Gender Dynamics

Miles City

Rural Areas

Economic Vulnerability & Demographic Stressors

Urban Vulnerabilities (Miles City)

Rural Vulnerabilities

Migration Patterns Entering the 1930s

In‑Migration (Earlier Decades)

By the Late 1920s

A County Divided — Yet Interdependent

Economic Conditions Entering the Depression (Custer County)

The Ranching Core: A Narrow but Essential Economic Base

Dryland Farming: A Landscape of Risk and Collapse

Ranching vs. Dryland Farming: Divergent Vulnerabilities

Timber, Coal & Clay: Small but Significant Sectors

Timber

Coal

Clay & Bentonite

Isolation & Transportation: Structural Barriers to Growth

Structural Vulnerabilities Before the Crash

Ecological Conditions Entering the Depression (Custer County)

Riparian Agriculture: A Narrow Ecological Corridor

Dryland Farming: Soil Fragility and Climatic Stress

Rangelands and Livestock: Overgrazed Grasslands and Declining Forage

Upland Forests and Watershed Stress

Environmental Variability: A Landscape on the Edge

A County Already Under Ecological Stress

Why the County Was in This Position in 1930 (Custer County)

A Ranching Economy Dependent on Narrow Environmental Conditions

Dryland Farming: A System Already in Collapse

Rangeland Stress: Overgrazed Grasslands and Declining Carrying Capacity

Timber, Coal & Clay: Declining but Still Influential

Isolation & Transportation: A Structural Weakness

Environmental Variability: A Landscape on the Edge

Underlying Structural Vulnerabilities

A County Already Stretched Thin

1930s United States Forest Service Aerial Photographs of the County

CLICK BELOW FOR SHORT CLIP OF 1930s FILM ON THE CONDITIONS OF THE PEOPLE AND THE LAND

SEE BELOW FOR RESEARCH ON NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN THE COUNTY

KNOWN NEW DEAL PROJECTS IN CUSTER COUNTY

Source Notes

Montana Historical Society (MHS) – WPA Project Lists

Living New Deal (University of California, Berkeley)

Montana State Library – New Deal GIS Map

CCC Legacy – Montana CCC Camp Lists

Fort Missoula CCC Camp Map (Montana Historical Society / MSL)

U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Region 1 Historical Summaries

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) – Technical Reports & Project Summaries

Resettlement Administration (RA) & Farm Security Administration (FSA) Records

Rural Electrification Administration (REA) – Annual Reports